Syria. Economic-geographical location

Syria in maps October 2nd, 2015

A small guide to the physical, economic, social geography of the Syrian Arab Republic. Especially for armchair analysts.

Territory: 185.18 thousand sq. km. Most of the country's territory lies on an arid plateau, which is dotted with mountain ranges. The average height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To the north of the mountains is the Hamad Desert, to the south is Homs.

Coastline length: about 175 km.

Subtropical Mediterranean climate on the coast and dry continental in the interior.

The average January temperature ranges from +4 °C in the eastern regions to +12 °C on the coast. The average temperature in July ranges from +33 °C to +26 °C, respectively.

Population: 22 million (2011 estimate). To date, between 3 and 4 million people have fled the country.

GDP: 107.4 billion dollars (as of 2011).

Physical card.

Another physical map.

Population density.

Transport infrastructure. Link .

Oil and gas. Deposits, infrastructure, pipelines.

The largest deposits are located in the extreme northeast of the country. The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.

In addition to oil, the country has large reserves of phosphorites. Their deposit is being developed in the Khneifis area.

Other mineral resources include deposits of chromium, uranium, iron ore, manganese, lead, sulfur, asbestos, copper, and dolomite. But they are relatively small.

Oil production and consumption in dynamics.

Economic zones of the Eastern Mediterranean countries.

Only a third of the country's territory is suitable for agriculture. Most of the fertile land is located in the coastal strip, another part stretches in a strip from the Golan Heights and Damascus to the border with Turkey. The third fertile zone is the Euphrates River valley.

Dynamics of public debt since 2010.

Story Syria (Arabic: سوريا / Suriya, English: Syria) dates back more than five thousand years - it is a connecting link for three continents, the cradle of one of the oldest civilizations. This country never ceases to interest archaeologists, scientists, and tourists. The very first traces of humans on the territory of what is now the SAR (Syrian Arab Republic), discovered in the area of ​​Latakia and the Orontes River, are estimated to be about a million years old. In the Euphrates Valley, there is a significant part of those places where people switched from a nomadic lifestyle to agriculture. Syria's advantageous geographical position at the junction of three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa - has contributed to the development of trade and the prosperity of cities at all times.

In the VI century. BC. the entire territory of Syria is part of the ancient Persian kingdom of the Achaemenids, and after its defeat in 333 BC. The Greek-Macedonian army entered the empire of Alexander the Great. Covering not only Syria, but also a number of other countries in Western Asia, North Africa and even Europe, the Arab conquest led to the emergence of the Arab Caliphate. , which fell into the hands of Arab conquerors in 635, became the capital of the first of the Arab dynasties - the Umayyads, and Syria - their crown province.

At the beginning of the 15th century. Syria was subjected to a short (less than a year) but extremely devastating invasion by Tamerlane. In 1516, after the battle in the town of Marj Dabiq, Syria became a province of the Ottoman Empire. Turkish rule, which lasted four centuries, left a heavy mark on the history of Syria, contributed to the decline of its economy and culture, and the impoverishment of the population. In September 1918, an anti-Turkish uprising began in southern Syria, and by the end of 1918 the Ottomans were expelled from Syria. Troops entered Damascus, the capital of Syria, under the command of Emir Faisal ibn al-Husseini, who was proclaimed King of Syria in 1920, but was forced to leave the country in the same year. Syria and Lebanon were placed under the mandate of France, which established a colonial regime. After the Syrian national uprising of 1925-27. France changed its apparently colonial methods of government.

From January 1944, the mandate officially ended and the country was formally declared independent. Syria became a member of the UN, and in March 1945 it was one of the initiators of the creation of the League of Arab States. The day of evacuation of foreign troops from Syria on April 17, 1946 is celebrated annually in the country as a national holiday.

With The modern flag of Syria (العلم السوريا) first appeared in 1958 and was used for three years during the period of the United Arab Republic (two stars representing Syria and Egypt). It became a national symbol again on May 30, 1980.

Green is the color of Islam; red - the blood of martyrs; black - dark colonial past; white is the color of the world.

Geography

Syria is a state in the Middle East, bordered by Lebanon and Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east and Turkey to the north, directly adjacent to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, with a coastline of 173 km. The total length of the borders is 2414 km. The area of ​​the state is 185,180 km (86th place in the world). The territory of the state is very heterogeneous. The northwestern territories bordering Turkey are occupied by mountain spurs Taurus. The coastal zone is a rift zone, with the Al-Ghabb depression running parallel to the coast, through which the second largest river in Syria flows. Al-Asi(Orontes). On the coastal side, the depression is framed by the Jabal al-Nisairiya mountain range, dividing the country into a wet western part and an arid eastern part. The fertile coastal plain is located in northwestern Syria and stretches 130 km from north to south along the Mediterranean coast from the Turkish to the Lebanese border. Almost all of the country's agriculture is concentrated here. The highest point in Syria is Jabal Al Sheikh, mentioned in the Bible as Mount Hermon. To the south of the mountains lies the Syrian Badiyat Ashsham Desert, along with the oasis of Palmyra in the northern part of this arid region.

Population

With a population of 19,405,000, Syria ranks 55th in the world (at the beginning of 2008). The average population growth rate of the country is 2.5%, which is 6 times higher than in EU countries. The majority of the Syrian population consists of Arabs(87.8% of the total population). About 400 thousand people are Palestinian Arabs - refugees of 1947 and 1967. Of the national minorities, the most numerous are Kurds (10% of the population) and Armenians (more than 200 thousand). In addition, Aisors (Assyrians), Turkmens, Circassians, and Jews live in Syria. The bulk of the population is concentrated on the coast, along the banks of the Euphrates, mountain slopes, in intermountain basins and in the western part of the eastern plateau. The highest population density is typical for the regions of Damascus and Latakia.

Language

Modern Arabic literary- the official language in Syria and in 21 other states with a total population of about 330 million people. Arabic is one of the six working languages ​​of the UN. In all Arab countries, along with the official - classical language ( fusha - الفصحى), used in the media and government agencies, in everyday life everyone speaks the local dialect.

Religion

In the minds of most Russians, Syria is a distant Muslim country, no different from other states in the Arab world. But this is far from true. There are virtually no religious conflicts in the country. The vast majority of the population does not accept religious intolerance. Here, any citizen is first of all a Syrian, and only then a Muslim or Christian. Syria was once a generally Christian country, but today the majority of its inhabitants profess Islam However, the Constitution guarantees equal rights to all citizens and equal protection to all religions. 89% of the believing population profess Islam (including 79% Sunnis, 8% Alawites, 2% Druze belonging to Shiite sects), the rest are Christians.

Connection

In recent years, the number of mobile phones, the GSM standard network is developed everywhere. There are two cellular operators in Syria - MTN(yellow signs) and Syriatel(red signs). For a stay of more than a week in Syria, it is recommended to purchase a SIM card from a local operator. You can purchase it at any mobile phone store. To do this, you need a copy of your passport, a form indicating the names of your parents and, don’t be surprised, a thumbprint. All incoming calls are free. Communication with Russia is carried out using code 007 - city code or mobile. operator - phone number (or +7), communication within the country through 0, similar to our 8. Internet. The Internet is widespread in Syria almost everywhere. Internet cafes and computer clubs offer the use of the Internet (sometimes not very fast), scanning and printing services for documents. There are sites that are closed for access, for example Youtube, Facebook. Prices vary from 60 liras in ordinary cafes to 650 liras in expensive hotels per hour of work.

Time

In Syria, time is one hour behind Moscow. The entire country is in the same time zone. Syria, like Russia, switches to summer time.

In 1955-1956, agreements were concluded with the British "Iraq Petroleum Company" and the American "Transara-Bien Pipeline Company" on the transfer to Syria of 50% of the profits received by the companies for transporting oil through oil pipelines passing through the territory of Syria
http://bse.sci-lib.com/article102589.html

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulfur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Syria

http://www.atenergy.com/me/SyriaAP.htm

At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies was prohibited.
Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production.
By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria.
By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon.
http://www.bestreferat.ru/referat-10876.html

Syrian Petroleum Company
In the period of 1923 – 1950: Iraq petroleum company and then Syria oil company have been acquired a Concession for oil exploration, where /11/ wells were drilled with out petroleum discoveries.

In the period of 1951 – 1956: /6/ wells were drilled and petroleum was discovered in Karachouk field for the first time.
In 1956 Concordia Company had signed an exploration contract and drilled /12/ wells where oil accumulations were discovered in Souedieh field.

In 1957 the Syrian Government had concluded a technical and economic cooperation contract with the soviet union
In 1958 General Corporate For Oil Affairs was established and entrusted to supervise the oil industry in Cooperation with the Soviet side, where during this period a geological map for Syria was made.
The SPC was established in 1974 and was entrusted to execute oil and gas exploration and production operations in all parts of Syria.

In the period of 1961 – 1975: the SPC had executed drilling of / 485 / wild cat and exploratory wells and put a number of structures into Production.
A contract had signed with Rom petroleum company to explore oil. This company had withdrawn after drilling 7 wells.

In the period of 1975 – 1985: a group of Contracting companies for oil exploration were entered and executed geological and geophysical works over almost the whole acreage of Syria. During this period 270 exploration wells were drilled.
The SPC had recorded several discoveries, while the contracting companies didn’t achieve any discoveries.

In the period of 1986 – 1995: this period had been characterized by increasing the exploratory activity whether by the SPC or by the contracting companies where exploration contracts had signed with /12/ foreign companies (shell, Elf – Total, Marathon and Tulo Companies) were achieved significant discoveries of oil and gas in different parts of Syria. The SPChad discovered /15/ oil and gas fields

In the period of 1995 – 2006: A new group of Contracting companies for oil exploration had entered and signed 13 contracts with the Syrian Petroleum Company which they are 11 companies.
http://www.spc-sy.com/en/main/index.php

Syria (1980-2009)
(peak production year 1996)

http://www.crudeoilpeak.com/?page_id=1571

The main minerals are oil, produced mainly in Kara Shuk (Karashuk) in the far northeast of the country; natural gas mainly from the Al Jazeera area; phosphates, limestone and salt. Oil pipelines from Iraq and Jordan pass through Syria; there is a pipeline stretching from Kara Shuk to the Mediterranean coast.

Since 1974, oil has remained Syria's dominant source of income, accounting for approximately 65% ​​of its total exports at the end of the 20th century. Oil production in 2001 was 522,700 barrels per day, with proven oil reserves of 2.4 billion barrels as of January 2002 and proven natural gas reserves of 240.7 billion cubic meters.
http://www.rusarabbc.org/rusarab/detail.php?ID=1350

In the mid-1990s, the country produced approx. 66.5–80 thousand tons of liquid fuel. In 1997, oil production amounted to 30 million tons. The largest fields are located in the extreme northeast (in Karachuk, Suwaidiya, Rumailan and the vicinity of Deir ez-Zor). In the northeast and east in the Euphrates Valley, the exploitation of deposits began in the late 1960s, and in the Deir ez-Zor region, where particularly high-quality light oil is produced, in the 1980s–1990s. Natural gas is also being extracted, including that associated with oil fields (5 billion cubic meters were produced in 1997). The largest oil refining complexes were built in Baniyas and Homs.
http://www.easttime.ru/countries/topics/2/7/49.html

4/5/2010
Syria's Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources today invited international oil companies to bid for exploration and production rights to eight blocks.
The Ministry said that it is offering production sharing contracts for Blocks III, IV, V, VII, XII, XIV, XVI, and XVIII, in the eastern and northern parts of the country. It said that qualifying documents should be submitted by 1 June and bids no later than 15 September.

In addition to the eight blocks on offer, the Ministry has extended its earlier deadline for bids to develop seven separate oil areas believed to be heavy oil fields to June 20. These are also to be under production sharing agreements and are divided into two groups, both in Raqqa Province: Group 1 includes West Tureb, Halima, and Dohal, while Group 2 consists of Jaadeen, Tal Asfar, Zenati, and al-Haloul.
Syria is in an all-out effort to drive up its oil production, which has decreased from 590,000 b/d four years ago to about 380,000 b/d today. Its natural gas production is approximately 882.9 million cf/d.
http://www.oilandgasinternational.com/departments/licensing_concessions/apr10_syria.aspx

Oil and capital, 2007, No. 4
Syria's oil reserves, according to various estimates, range from 315 million to 342 million tons. At the same time, according to experts, major discoveries have already been made in the country. In the east and northeast there are heavy (24°API) oil fields explored in the 60-70s of the 20th century (the largest of them are Karachuk and Suwaydiyah), on which the state-owned Syrian Petroleum Company (SPC) operates after nationalization in 1968. In addition, SPC is developing a number of fields it has already discovered here. Raw materials from the northeast are supplied via an oil pipeline with a capacity of about 15 million tvg to the refinery in the city of Homs and the Tartus export terminal.

The second center of Syrian oil production is located in the province of Deir ez-Zour (central and southeastern part of the country). Here, in the 80s of the last century, a consortium of foreign companies, led by Shell’s subsidiary Pecten, discovered the al-Thayyem field containing light (36°API) oil. To jointly manage the al-Thayyem concession, SPC and consortium members created the al-Furat Petroleum Company (AFPC) JV in 1985. Today, after repeated changes in the composition of shareholders, AFPC participants are SPC (50%), Shell (31.25%) and a consortium of Chinese CNPC and Indian ONGC (18.75%). In addition to al-Thayyem, AFPC is developing 36 more fields in this province. All AFPC fields are combined into three projects - Appendix IV, Al Sham, Deir ez-Zour: for each, SPC signed a production sharing contract with foreign partners. Shell is the leader in each project, with a share of more than 60%.

AFPC's fields are connected to the Kirkuk-Baniyas transit oil pipeline from Iraq, through which oil is supplied to the ports of Tartus and Latakia and to the Baniyas refinery.

According to Syrian Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Sufian Allaw, the country produced about 20 million tons of oil in 2006: 3 million tons less than a year earlier (see chart). Moreover, according to various (often conflicting) sources, AFPC accounts for from 1/2 to 2/3 of total production. Over the past 10 years, the level of oil production in Syria has decreased by a third from its peak of 30 million tge in 1996. The reason for this was the depletion of the vast majority of fields, the reduction in production at which began back in the 90s.

At this stage, Syria is a net exporter of oil, but at the same time the country imports oil. Mostly light oil is imported into Syria; it is mixed with local heavy grades, and only this mixture is processed at refineries that were initially focused on Iraqi raw materials. Currently, the Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline does not operate as a transit pipeline: the Americans blocked it in 2003.

According to IMF forecasts, if the decline in oil production in Syria is not stopped, and the volume of consumption of petroleum products continues to grow, then by 2010 the country will become a net importer of “black gold” from a net exporter. In order to avoid this, the country's leadership, on the one hand, is intensifying efforts to attract investors to explore new reserves, and on the other hand, it has begun to pay more attention to intensifying production and expanding the use of natural gas. Let us note that the influx of investment into the country is limited by US sanctions, which believe that Syria supports international terrorism. This, in particular, explains the absence of major American companies in the country, which at the dawn of the development of Syrian oil production showed significant interest in it.

In 2001, a series of international tender rounds opened in Syria for the right to conduct oil and gas exploration work under a PSA. Over the past time, at least 5 (according to other sources - 6) rounds have taken place in the country, during which more than 20 licensed areas have found owners.

In mid-March, Syria put up new areas for the next round, which, if all of them are distributed, will most likely be the last of the “land” ones. Damascus offers 7 lots, and all of them are located in border areas: 3 with Jordan, 2 with Iraq, and 2 with Turkey. Also this year it is planned to offer investors offshore blocks of the Syrian shelf of the Mediterranean Sea.

During previous rounds, companies from all over the world received licenses in Syria: currently, according to Sufian Allawa, 13 foreign entities are conducting oil exploration and production here. Two Russian companies - Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz - also received the opportunity to develop production projects in Syria: each of them won one license.
Russian companies signed a PSA for the licenses they won in 2005, just after Syrian President Bashar al-Assad visited Moscow and Russia agreed to write off a significant part of the Syrian debt.

Tatneft “took” its block (No. 27) in the 2003 round. Its area is 1900 km2, it is divided into two sections, which are directly adjacent to the border with Iraq. The Kirkuk-Baniyas oil pipeline runs along the edge of the southern section of the block. According to the terms of the contract, Tatneft will allocate more than $26 million for geological exploration over 7 years. The main exploration period for the block is 3 years; at Tatneft’s request, it can be extended twice by two years. The minimum exploration program involves conducting 2D and 3D seismic surveys and drilling three exploration wells, and in case of contract extension, three more. The period of field development and oil production under the contract is 25 years. During this period, Tatneft will also spend $1 million to finance social and educational programs.

At the moment, there is no data on possible reserves of the block. According to experts, despite the complex geological structure, the block is promising, given that oil production is actively underway in neighboring areas. According to information from Tatneft, by the end of 2006 the company had completed work on interpreting seismic data from previous years, and in early March it began seismic exploration work, including 3D, over an area of ​​130 km2 and geochemical surveying over an area of ​​170 km2.

SoyuzNefteGaz won in 2004: the company won licenses for two blocks - No. 12 and No. 14, but subsequently abandoned the second. SoyuzNefteGaz will operate in the block bordering Iraq, which is adjacent to the holdings of Tatneft. According to the company, the block most likely contains gas resources rather than oil, which at this stage are estimated at 70-80 billion m3. As NIK reported, over 8 years, according to the terms of the contract, SoyuzNefteGaz must invest at least $50 million in geological exploration. It will have to conduct 2D seismic over an area of ​​1000 linear meters. km and 3D - for 500 km2, and also to drill 10 exploration wells.

Let us note that both Tatneft and SoyuzNefteGaz have interests in Iraq. In particular, the largest project of SoyuzNefteGaz is the development of the Al-Rafidayan field, located in the south of the country. According to information from both companies, they consider Syrian assets as a springboard for strengthening their positions in Iraq. But if Tatneft does not intend to expand the geography of its activities in Syria, then SoyuzNefteGaz is considering the possibility of participating in the upcoming “land” round, which will include areas on the border with Iraq. By the way, Yuri Shafranik’s company has previously made attempts to enter into existing projects for the development of border blocks (see “Block No. 26”).

In 2005, the Russian Stroytransgaz began implementing two large-scale projects in Syria. Firstly, the company, having won the tender and signed a contract for $210 million with the Syrian Gas Company (SGC), began developing three fields in the new Palmyra gas production area. As part of it, Stroytransgaz is building a gas processing plant with a capacity of 2.2 billion m3/year of purified gas, 23 thousand tg of propane-butane and 180 thousand tg of condensate, as well as gas pipelines and related infrastructure. Construction is scheduled to be completed in February 2008. At the same time, the company is negotiating the construction of a second gas processing plant in Palmyra with a capacity of 1.1 billion m3.

Secondly, Stroytransgaz began construction of a section of the Arab gas pipeline, through which Egyptian gas should be supplied to Turkey, and then, after joining the Nabucco project, to Europe. The implementation of the project is divided into two stages: the first involves the construction of a 96 km section from the border with Jordan to the Deir Ali thermal power plant and a branch (5 km) to the Tishrin thermal power plant, the second involves the construction of the Deir Ali - Homs section and a gas collection point in Homs, as well as a connection GPP in Palmyra with Homs. The construction of a branch to the Tishrine thermal power plant is the result of an expansion of the contract in 2005, the cost of which, according to the company, increased to $160 million. At this stage, more than 150 km of gas pipeline have already been laid in the ground; Construction is scheduled to be completed in December of this year.

In addition to the ongoing construction projects, Stroytransgaz’s “waiting list” includes projects whose implementation is related to Iraq, and which have been postponed until the situation in this country stabilizes. Thus, in 2001, Stroytransgaz reached an agreement with the Syrian government on the construction, together with the French Total, of a new transit branch of the Kirkuk-Homs-Baniyas-Beirut oil pipeline with a throughput capacity of 70 million tvg. In 2002, the company handed over a feasibility study for the oil pipeline to the Syrian side. As Stroytransgaz told NIK, Syria has not yet made a decision to revive the oil pipeline, but the company believes that this is only a matter of time. Once this pipe is in demand again, Stroytransgaz will become the number one contender for its construction.

In addition, the Western Gas project, within the framework of which a gas pipeline with a length of 300 km and a cost of €180 million was to be built to Syria from Iraq, was frozen. At the initiative of the Iraqi side, Stroytransgaz prepared a corresponding proposal in 2002; Before the outbreak of hostilities, the parties managed to agree on the technical and commercial aspects of the project, but negotiations were suspended at this point. At the end of 2005, Iraq and Syria signed an agreement to revive the project.

Today, there are two fuel oil refineries operating in Syria - in Homs and Baniyas, built in 1959 and 1979, respectively. The total capacity of the plants is about 11.5 million tvg. They do not have catalytic cracking units, and the reforming unit at the Baniyas refinery has a capacity (about 1.5 million tow) that is insufficient to meet the country’s needs for motor fuel. Syria annually exports straight-run gasoline and is forced to import kerosene and diesel fuel.

At the same time, domestic consumption of petroleum products in the country is growing steadily and currently amounts to about 13 million tge. According to Syrian experts, this trend will continue, so the local downstream needs to be expanded and modernized. At this stage, the country’s oil refining capacity is planned to be increased to 25 million tg through the construction of two new refineries. In the future, Syria intends to completely abandon the export of crude oil and maintain only the export of petroleum products.

Today, it can be stated that most major projects in the field of infrastructure development of the Syrian oil industry are either already being implemented or promised to Russian companies. Given that two years ago they only had plans in Syria, this result can be called a breakthrough.

It is clear, of course, that this breakthrough was a consequence of the political support provided to the Syrian leader in Russia, as well as debt write-off.

Now Russian companies are striving to conclude agreements with the Syrian side on a non-competitive basis, which, according to representatives of the Russian-Syrian Business Council, is the shortest way to start implementing specific projects. According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade, the Syrian leadership is meeting Russia halfway on this issue.

Oil is the “black blood” that fuels the Syrian conflict. It is from its sales on the black or official world market that all four main parties to the Syrian crisis are fighting, buying weapons, ammunition and food. These are the Syrian Arab Army (government forces, SAA), the Free Syrian Army (FSA), which is called the so-called “moderate opposition”, militants of the terrorist quasi-formation “Islamic State” 1 (the organization’s activities are prohibited on the territory of the Russian Federation by decision of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation) and Jabhat al-Nusra (banned in Russia), as well as paramilitary Kurdish units.

The Kurds are a people of 40 million who live compactly in the territories of four countries: Syria, Iraq, Iran and Turkey. As a result of the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Kurds took advantage of the opportunity presented by fate to create Iraqi Kurdistan. It should be noted that the Iraqi and Syrian Kurds who are fighting shoulder to shoulder against the Islamic State militants are not the same thing. The only decoration of the capital of Syrian Kurdistan, Rojava, is the tirelessly working oil derricks.

The main source of financial support for the Kurds is the rich oil fields located in northern Syria. The most important of them are Shaddadi and Rumelani. Their reserves are estimated at hundreds of millions of barrels of “black gold”. Before the war, in the area of ​​the city of Al-Hasakah, which today, according to some information, is already completely under the control of the Supreme Kurdish Council of Western Kurdistan, about 40 thousand barrels of oil were produced per day (a tenth of Syria’s entire oil production).

During the Syrian conflict, oil wells did not remain abandoned. According to Lebanese media reports, oil production in the fields around Hasakah has only increased - to 170 thousand barrels per day. The Kurds, unlike the Islamic State, who traded oil for almost $10 per barrel, have established the process of oil production in all seriousness. Moreover, the Kurds not only extract oil, but also process a significant part of it using old equipment.

At the moment, it is the Kurdish formations that have actually surrounded the capital of the “Islamic State” - Raqqa. At the same time, military assistance to the Kurds is provided both from the Russian Federation and from the international anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States. The Russian Aerospace Forces do not regularly strike positions of ISIS 1 militants, which Kurdish formations also encounter. In turn, the Western coalition not only carries out airstrikes against terrorists, but supplies the Kurds with light small arms and artillery weapons. Moreover, according to media reports, about a hundred American special forces are now serving as military instructors in the ranks of Kurdish forces.

Political scientist, expert of the Foundation for the Development of Civil Society Institutions “Public Diplomacy” Vladimir Kireev in the comments Federal News Agency noted that one of the main reasons for the outbreak of war on Syrian territory is considered to be the desire of individual countries to build a pipeline for liquefied gas, and probably oil, from the Persian Gulf region. For this purpose, the Gulf countries made a lot of efforts to first persuade the political leadership of Syria led by Bashar al-Assad to cooperation, which was ultimately rejected.

“As a result, this led to a desire to overthrow him. Probably, these same energy pipelines are the reason for active interference in the fate of the Syrian people by the EU countries and the USA. They are strongly interested in the supply of oil and gas from the Persian Gulf, including to diversify gas supplies from the Russian Federation, with which the EU and the United States already had more than tense relations at the beginning of the Arab Spring. Such cooperation between the Syrian Arab Republic and the Gulf countries was unacceptable both for most of Bashar al-Assad’s entourage and for Damascus’ main partner in the region - Iran. For Tehran, the loss of partner Syria meant the rupture of the “Shiite” space, which unfolded from Iran to Lebanon with access to the Mediterranean Sea, which turned Lebanon into an isolated and, in fact, low-value enclave,” explained Vladimir Kireev.

Thus, the expert noted, oil and gas, along with problems in the Syrian economy and failures in political governance, can be called the main reasons for the outbreak of hostilities in this Arab country. Syrian oil is not as abundant as that of the Gulf countries and Iran, but it is enough to “keep afloat” for many years the political system of the Syrian Arab Republic, and since 2011, all the warring parties in Syria. It is no secret that all the main “players” in Syria throughout all the years of the war have been financed to a large extent thanks to the trade in oil - including Syrian oil produced in the occupied territories.

“When studying the map of Syria, it is striking that the main centers of clashes, strongholds and transport routes are built in accordance with the logic of not only large settlements, airports and ethnic territories, but also in accordance with the areas of explored oil and gas fields and production areas of this valuable mineral resource. The oil trade makes it possible to supply all warring parties with weapons, clothing, equipment, and money to pay the fighters. It allows you to ensure the loyalty of officials and intelligence officers, local leaders and politicians. In this matter, there is no difference between the SAA, the FSA, extremists from the Islamic State and Jabhat al-Nusra, the Army of Islam, Ahrar al-Sham, as well as the Syrian Kurdish units from the YPG and YPJ,” I am sure expert.

At the same time, the political scientist noted, if we are talking about Islamists, then the situation with them is more or less clear. Their future is predetermined by the world community. If they do not disappear from the political space, then in Syria and Iraq in their modern form they will have to cease to exist. But the future of Syria and Iraq as integral states is far from being so clearly guaranteed. The point is that the Kurds - one of the largest divided peoples on the planet - have long and persistently sought to create their own state. And the situation of the war in Iraq and Syria gives them such a chance.

“Although the Kurds declare their loyalty to official Damascus, in fact we can say that they may not be limited to the autonomy proclaimed on January 1, 2014. Having a large population, combat-ready troops, support from the US, the EU, and having a serious ideology in the form of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) Abdullah Ocalan, Syrian Kurdistan could easily become a hotbed for the formation of a Kurdish state. Moreover, unlike the Iraqi Kurds, who are actually subordinate to Ankara, the Syrian Kurds have powerful support in the form of the PKK operating in Turkey and northern Iraq, the sympathy of the European left, and the overall global anti-imperialist movement, which of course does not have divisions, but its image is also not an empty phrase. The main thing in this situation is the desire of the United States to obtain a zone of control in Syria, to provide a factor of pressure on Turkey, and a source for the formation of a new Kurdish state, which was stated more than once by officials at scientific conferences. In this situation, Damascus should be more attentive to its northern allies, because their navigation could become autonomous from Damascus as a result of the war,” concluded Vladimir Kireev.

As experts warn, the result of a successful Kurdish offensive on Raqqa could be the loss of significant oil fields by the Syrian Republic. It will be almost impossible to return these fields - as practice shows, the Kurds do not share oil revenues with the rest of the Syrian people, although they exploit wells located on Syrian soil.

In addition, experts note that no one is preventing Kurdish units, with the support of the United States, from attacking the equally oil-rich Deir ez-Zor from the north. If this attack is successful, Syria will lose all significant oil and gas fields, which means the country will be doomed to collapse, and Bashar al-Assad will ultimately be destroyed.

1 The organization is prohibited on the territory of the Russian Federation.

3. Pages of history. Syria is a country of ancient civilization. Archaeological excavations indicate that here already several thousand years BC. e. there were human settlements. The ruins of the city of Ugarit, discovered near the town of Ras Shamra (15 km from Latakia), date back to this period. Monuments of material culture found in the sand-covered ancient city of Mari (not far from the Syrian-Iraqi border) show that it existed as early as the 4th millennium BC. e. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. e. Slave states emerge on Syrian territory. From the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. they become the object of the aggressive aspirations of large ancient states. In the XVI - XV centuries. Syria was conquered by the Egyptian pharaohs, and in the 14th century BC. e. – Khetsky state, which arose in Asia Minor. By this time, a new ethnic element had penetrated into the country and became widespread - the Aramean tribes, who spoke a language close to the Amorite. Later, already in the 1st millennium BC. e. the Aramaic language became the language of interethnic communication in a large part of South-West Asia. At the beginning of the 10th century. BC e. A strong slaveholding state emerges in Syria - the Kingdom of Damascus. Since the 8th century. BC e. it is successively part of Assyria, the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, the power of Alexander the Great, and the Elliptical state of the Seleucids. In 64 BC. e. Syria is captured by the Romans, who crush the Pamir kingdom, which stretched from Egypt to Asia Minor and occupied a significant part of Syrian history. The ruins of his capital Palmyra have survived to this day. In the IV – VII centuries. – Syria is a province of the Byzantine Empire, and in the 8th century it was conquered by the Arabs. In 601,750 Damascus became the capital of the feudal Umayyad Caliphate, which stretched from Spain to India. The main population of Syria accepts Arabic and converts to Islam. In the VIII – XI centuries. Due to the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, Syria lost its privileged position, although it continued to play a significant role in the caliphate. In the 10th – 11th centuries, most of it came under the rule of the Seljuk Turks. In the 11th – 13th centuries, Syria was subjected to invasions by European knights - the crusaders, who created their principalities on its territory. From 1920 to 1943, Syria was a French mandate territory. In 1925 - 1927, the national liberation movement of the Syrians grew into a nationwide anti-imperialist uprising, brutally suppressed by the French colonialists. At the beginning of the Second World War, the country came under the control of fascist countries, but already in the summer of 1941, troops from England and France entered its territory. In November of the same year, France was forced to recognize the independence of Syria. In February 1958, Syria and Egypt united into the United Arab Republic (UAR), but in the fall of 1961, Syria seceded from the republic and became known as the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR). On July 5, 1967, Israel began its aggression against Syria and captured the Dutch heights. In 1973 there was a new outbreak of hostilities. In 1974, in accordance with the agreement, part of the Syrian Arab Republic was returned, while the other part remained with Israel. The new border between these countries runs on the Dutch heights. 5. Economic-geographical and political-geographical position The Syrian Arab Republic is located in South-West Asia, or as it is commonly called, in the Middle East. Its territory is 185.2 thousand square meters. km (Golan Heights - about 1370 sq. km, occupied by Israel since 1967). The EGP and GGP of Syria are relatively favorable, it has its pros and cons. In the north, Syria borders with Turkey (border length 845 km), in the west with Lebanon (356 km) and Israel (74 km), in the east with Iraq (596 km), in the south with Jordan (356 km). In the northwest, for 183 km, the country's territory is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to which Syria can carry out foreign economic relations. These are the advantages of the EGP and GGP of Syria. The climatic conditions in Syria are not favorable. The climate of Syria is subtropical, Mediterranean type. In the area of ​​the Mediterranean coast, the climate is maritime, with high rainfall; in the center of the country it is dry, continental. In the central part of the country, dry and hot summers give way to cold, harsh winters. There are sharp fluctuations in winter and summer temperatures, temperature fluctuations at night and during the day. High average annual air temperatures are typical for almost the entire country (for the Mediterranean coast + 19 degrees, the southeastern part of Syria - more than + 20 degrees, the rest of + 15-20 degrees). Only in mountainous areas located at an altitude of more than 1000 meters above sea level, the average annual temperature does not reach +15 degrees. Precipitation is distributed extremely unevenly across the country. Their greatest number is typical for the western and northern regions of the country, and in the eastern and southern regions their number sharply decreases. The greatest amount of precipitation is typical for the Mediterranean coast of Syria (600-900 mm per year, and on the slopes of the Ansaria mountain range - 1500 mm) and the mountainous regions of the country (over 1000 mm per year). In areas located inland, the amount of precipitation is reduced to 500 mm per year, because... mountain barriers prevent moist sea winds from penetrating there. On the steppe plateaus in the southeastern part of Syria, precipitation is reduced to 250-100 mm. In Syria, the prevailing winds are western and northwestern directions, which carry moisture from the Mediterranean Sea. However, in spring, early summer and autumn, a hot wind blows from the Arabian desert - khamsin. It carries with it a huge amount of sandy dust and raises the temperature by 10 - 15 degrees. Syria is not rich in mineral resources. Its territory contains mainly oil and phosphorite deposits. Therefore, Syria has to export raw materials. Syria also occupies an unfavorable position in relation to hot spots. Until recently, it itself was a hot spot. Syria's EGP has changed over time. The latest changes occurred in 1974, when Syria entered into an agreement with Israel, and part of its territory went to Israel. 6. Nature Most of Syria is an elevated plateau, the height of which above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 m. The western part of the plateau has a rather pronounced mountainous terrain. Here there are 2 ridges of mountain ranges, separated by a longitudinal depression - the Syrian graben 15-20 km wide; The El Asi (Orontes) river flows along its bottom. One of these massifs, located in the west, is called Ansaria, its highest point reaches 1562 m. This massif is almost parallel to the sea coast of the country. To the east of the El-Ghab depression stretches a group of mountain ranges: Jebel Akard, Ez-Zawiya, Jebel al-Sharqi and others. The slopes of these massifs drop steeply towards the El-Gab tectonic depression. In the northeast direction, low ridges extend from the Jebel al-Sharqi mountain range, some of which reach the Euphrates. These are the so-called Palmyrene mountain folds. The eastern, most of the territory of Syria, is occupied by a plateau 500-800 m high. Its southeastern part is called the Syrian Desert (a plateau with a monotonous landscape, also extending into the territory of Jordan, Iraq and Saudi Arabia; its height above sea level is 650 m), and the northeastern one is the Jedira Desert. The surface of the desert is covered with a network of small valleys - wadis, often lost in vast depressions, in poorly defined folds of the relief. On the plateau there are groups of extinct volcanoes and individual flat-topped massifs. In the southwest of Syria, on the border with Jordan, the Ed-Druz massif stands out, in current Syrian cartography called Jebel al-Arab. The highest peak of this massif, Mount El Jeina, reaches 1803 m. Separated by mountain ranges from the interior of the country, the coastal plain, stretching from the Turkish border to Lebanon, is a narrow strip of land (no more than 32 km at its widest part), which is several In some places it almost completely disappears when the mountains directly reach the Mediterranean Sea. The rivers of Syria mainly belong to the basins of the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. The largest river in Syria is the Euphrates (in Arabic - Shattel-Firat). It starts in Turkey and crosses Syria from northwest to southeast for 675 km, after which it heads to Iraq. The width of the Euphrates Valley in Syria ranges from 4 to 15 km. In Syria, the Euphrates receives 2 left tributaries: Khabur (460 km) and Belikh (105 km). In previous years, the water level was mostly unstable, and frequent floods occurred, especially during the snowmelt period. However, since 1973, a giant dam built with the assistance of the USSR has made it possible to regulate the river's flow. El Asi is the second largest river in Syria. It originates in Lebanon (in the Baalbek mountains) and flows into the Mediterranean Sea. El Asi flows through Syria for 325 km, crossing the country from south to north. This river is fed by mountain springs, melted snow and has significant reserves of water. The fertile plains of Homs, Hama, and El-Ghab are irrigated by the waters of this river. In some places the river forms lakes and swamps. The largest lake is Homs, the swamps are Asharna and Ghab. Syria's state border with Turkey and Iraq runs along the Tigris River (in Arabic Ed-Dijla) for 50 km. In the southwest of Syria flows the Barada River (71 km), which flows into Lake Buhair al-Utaiba. The waters of the Barada River irrigate the territory of the Damascus Ghouta oasis, where the capital of Syria, Damascus, is located. Syria also owns the right bank of the Yarmouk River, which borders Jordan. The vegetation in most of the country is desert and semi-desert in nature. It is represented by cereals, prickly herbs and shrubs, wormwood, astragalus, and spring ephemerals. The coastal strip of Syria is dominated by Mediterranean vegetation: evergreen oaks, laurels, myrtles, oleanders, and small cedar groves. There are many plantings of olive and mulberry trees, figs, citrus fruits, and grapes. Evergreen oaks and cypresses grow in the mountains; the higher parts of the mountains are covered with alpine vegetation. On the western slopes of the Ansaria ridge there are broad-leaved oak forests, as well as shrubs and low trees - scrub oaks and junipers, cypresses, pines, and cedar groves. The eastern slopes of the Ansaria, Anti-Lebanon and Esh-Sheikh ranges are dominated by shrubby mountain steppes, turning into semi-deserts in the lower mountain belt. The oases in the southeast are dominated by date palms and citrus fruits. Horticulture and viticulture are developed, cotton and subtropical crops are cultivated. In the Euphrates Valley, the remains of floodplain forests of poplar, tamarisk, and weeping Babylonian willow have been preserved. The fauna of Syria is relatively poor. The existence of small animals such as porcupine, hedgehog, squirrel, and hare is maintained at a minimum level. The most common species are rodents (gerbils, jerboas), predators (striped hyena, steppe lynx, panther, jackal), ungulates (onager, antelope, gazelle), reptiles (agama lizard, steppe boa), many snakes and chameleons. Many migratory birds settle for the winter in the Euphrates Valley and in some other areas of the country where there are open bodies of water. There you can find colonies of flamingos and storks. Seagulls and herons also nest there. Ducks, geese, and pelicans live on the banks of rivers and lakes. There are many birds in cities and villages - sparrows, pigeons, larks, cuckoos. Common birds of prey include eagles, falcons, hawks, and owls. 7. Population The demographic factor in Syria is having an increasingly active impact on the socio-economic development of the country and on addressing issues such as the growing needs for housing, medical care, employment, education, food, energy supply, etc. As of mid-1996, the country's population was 16,098 thousand people, including 8,075 thousand men and 8,023 thousand women. Among Arab countries, Syria stands out for having one of the highest birth rates (replacement rate over 3), high population growth (more than 3% per year) and belongs to the second type of reproduction, i.e., with high birth rates and relatively low mortality. An analysis of the dynamics of the demographic system over recent decades shows the intensity of population growth rates, accompanied by a constant decrease in the mortality rate for all age groups and an increase in average life expectancy. The age structure of the Syrian population retains features characteristic of most developing countries. In the mid-90s, people under the age of 14 made up 44.8% of the population, from 15 to 64 years old - 52%, from 65 years old and older - 4%. Thus, the age structure has the appearance of a regular pyramid, wide at the bottom (groups from 0 to 14 years old) and sharply narrowing at the top (persons over 65 years old). The average population density of Syria is 74 people per 1 sq. km. The current demographic situation in the country is directly related to the process of urbanization. Urban population growth occurs primarily in large cities. This situation is explained by the fact that recently there has been a significant outflow of rural residents to large cities and regional centers. An increase in the number of members of peasant families is not, as a rule, accompanied by an expansion of land allotment, as a result of which the labor productivity of those employed in the family farm decreases, periods of forced unemployment lengthen, dependence on side earnings increases, etc. The natural increase in the rural population increases the size of the agrarian overpopulation and encourages rural residents to migrate to cities. The ratio between the economically active and total population of the country is expressed by a threefold preponderance of the latter. This phenomenon is inherent in the demographic situation in the country throughout the last 20 years. In practice, this means that for every employed person there are on average three dependents. Such a high “demographic load” determines the relatively low level of the population involved in production and the low coefficient of productive use of national labor resources. Since by 2000 Syria, according to the plans of its leadership, should become a country of complete literacy (primary education is already considered compulsory) and since with an increase in the educational and cultural level in society there is a certain tendency towards a reduction in the birth rate, Syrian demographers suggest some possible slowdown in growth rates population of the country. But there are also a number of factors that have the opposite effect on these rates. Thus, these include, for example, urbanization, since in urban conditions the health care system functions much better than in rural areas, and, consequently, the mortality rate in general, and in children in particular, decreases. Eliminating illiteracy, especially among women, leads to the same results, since it has been established that children of an illiterate mother, who also does not possess basic sanitary and hygienic skills, die due to lack of proper care 2 times more often than those of a literate mother. The vast majority of the Syrian population (up to 90%) are Arabs. Syrian statistics do not keep records of the population by nationality, but, according to some data, in the mountainous regions of the country, east and northeast of Aleppo, there are at least 700 thousand. Kurds are the largest national minority in Syria. The country is also home to about 120 thousand Armenians - descendants of ancient settlers and refugees from Turkey, living mainly in Aleppo, Damascus and Hasakah. In addition, about 4 thousand Jews live in Syria, mainly in Damascus and Aleppo. Circassians, Assyrians, Turkmens, Turks, and Aisors also live. The official language is Arabic. Administratively, the country is divided into 14 governorates (muhafazat). 8. Economy Syria inherited an extremely backward economy from its colonial past. Foreign capital, mainly French, which controlled the main sectors of the country's economy, hampered the development of productive forces and production relations. Agriculture, the basis of the Syrian economy, was characterized by a low level of productive forces and the dominance of semi-feudal relations. Industrial production in the country was very poorly developed: it was represented mainly by light industry. After Syria gained political independence in 1946, the country began to take measures aimed at eliminating the severe consequences of colonialism, and the development of the national economy began. Syria was the first country in the Arab East to take the path of nationalizing enterprises owned by foreign monopoly capital. Under popular pressure, already in the early 50s, many railways and foreign electricity production companies were nationalized, and the share of foreign capital in local companies was limited to 50%. As a result, already at the end of 1957, almost all sectors of the economy that had previously been dominated by foreign capital (tobacco companies, railways, power plants, bank of issue, etc.) became state property. In 1963, all foreign and local banks, as well as insurance companies, were completely nationalized. As a result, the public sector has assumed a dominant position in Syria. Currently, it accounts for about 50% of national income, approximately 75% of the value of industrial products and 70% of fixed assets. At the end of 1964, the Syrian government issued a decree according to which all the country's oil and mineral resources were declared the property of the state. The transfer of concessions for their development to foreign companies is prohibited. However, in recent years, the Syrian leadership has taken steps to liberalize the economy and enhance the activities of the private sector, which accounts for 25% of the cost of industrial production and which occupies a dominant position in agriculture, retail trade, and the service sector , motor transport, housing construction. For the purpose of economic development of the country, foreign capital is attracted, primarily in the form of financial assistance from oil-producing Arab countries and a number of Western countries. The annual increase in gross national product (GNP) is 5 – 7%. Foreign exchange reserves – 4 billion US dollars. External debt (excluding military debt) – 6 billion US dollars. 8.1. Industry Over the years of political independence, Syria has achieved well-known success in the development of national industry. The Syrian government traditionally pays very close attention to the country's industrialization issues. This, first of all, is reflected in the five-year plans for the country's socio-economic development. Since the 70s, a program of structural restructuring of the economy has been carried out in Syria in the interests of increasing the role of the sphere of material production in it through the accelerated development of relevant industries. Particular attention in this process was paid to industrial production as the basis for strengthening the material and technical base of the entire national economy. Among other things, it was planned to place emphasis on the priority development of manufacturing industries based on the use and processing of local raw materials. In these years, in the development of the public sector of industry, a tendency towards the construction of large economic facilities, which immediately took a leading position in the industry, was very clearly evident. First of all, this applied to oil refining, chemical, cement and some other industries. Despite noticeable successes in creating a national industry, its formation and development is fraught with great difficulties associated both with a general lack of monetary and financial resources and persistent structural imbalances in the economy, and with the lack of an adequate number of qualified workers, existing shortcomings in planning and scientific research. ensuring production, as well as sales of products. Since the industrial production process continues to be largely focused on the use of imported components, one of the most pressing problems is the problem of capacity utilization. In this regard, the government has repeatedly made attempts to revive production in the “free zones” in order to, using the preferential customs regime granted to them for the import of raw materials, solve the problem of supplying the latter. The public sector plays the main role in industrial output. In the first half of the 90s, the share of the public sector in the mining industry was estimated at 70%, and in the manufacturing industry - about 60%. The number of people employed in the mining industry in the early 90s was 6.9 thousand people. Extraction of main minerals (thousand tons) | |1980 |1985 |1990 |1995 | |Oil, million tons |8.3 |8.5 |27.3 |34.3 | |Phosphates |1319 |1224 |1469 |1598 | |Rock salt |90 |106 |74 |111 | |Natural asphalt |89 |62 |67 |108 | |Gypsum |… |128 |183 |336 | |Building stone, cube. m |1991 |576 |1276 |1358 | Despite the country's limited natural resources, the mining industry has been the most dynamic sector of the Syrian economy in recent years. The basis of the mining industry is oil production. Its share in the total production volume of the mining industry is estimated at 97%. The overwhelming majority of oil reserves and its production are located in the Rumelan, Jebissi and South Euphrates regions of the east and northeast of the country. By the end of the 80s, over 50 oil fields were discovered in Syria, of which approximately 2 dozen are under development and operation. Since 1974, Syria has attracted foreign companies to participate in oil production. To this end, a number of areas of the country were declared open for exploration, drilling and oil production. The work was carried out under risk service contracts. At the same time, the most promising areas for oil were granted concessions to foreign companies. By the mid-80s, the bulk of the promising oil-bearing areas of Syria were at the disposal of the American companies Pekten and Marathon. Over the past few years, Syria has stepped up its gas production activities. The traditional activity in this area is associated with the use of associated gas, the recoverable reserves of which are estimated at 11 billion cubic meters. m. Its annual production is approximately 500 billion cubic meters. m. In 1987, a gas purification complex built by the Czechoslovak side was put into operation at the Djebissi field. The Palmyra region is considered the most promising in terms of expanding gas production and its use in industry. Its natural gas is planned to be used, in particular, as fuel for power plants, including the Mharde power plant near the city of Hama. Phosphate mining plays a significant role in the Syrian economy, the explored reserves of which are estimated at 1.5 billion tons. Their main reserves are concentrated in the Khneifns and Sharkiyya fields. Field development is carried out by Romania, Poland, and Bulgaria. Due to the fact that Syrian phosphates have a high chlorine content (0.02 - 0.2%), an acute problem is the creation of special capacities for their washing. Iron ore reserves in Syria are estimated at 400 - 500 million tons. The main areas of its occurrence are considered to be Zabadani and Bludan (iron content in the ore is 32%), as well as Raju (28%). Among other minerals, rock salt, asphalt, gravel, building stone, gypsum, marble and a number of others are mined in Syria. Oil refining occupies an important place among the manufacturing industries. The oil refining industry is represented by 2 plants - in Homs and Baniyas. The capacity of the plant in Homs is more than 5 million tons of oil per year. The plant runs on a mixture of Syrian heavy (50%) and light oil. The Baniyas plant, with a capacity of 6 million tons per year, is also designed to process a mixture of imported light and heavy local oil (20–50%). During the 80s, the oil refinery in Homs was repeatedly reconstructed in order to expand the range of products, in particular by producing 100 thousand tons of lubricating oils per year. The traditional sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry, which accounts for just under 20% of gross manufacturing output. This industry employs more than 50% of the workers employed in all major industry in the country. The main emphasis in the development of this industry is on the primary use of local raw materials, which determines the leading position in the cotton production industry. The overwhelming majority of cotton fabrics are produced at public sector enterprises. They produce mainly sheet linen, flannel, shirting, printed and drapery fabrics, poplin and others. The general management of textile enterprises in the public sector is carried out by the General Organization "Unitekstil". The production of silk fabrics in Syria is based primarily on imported raw materials. The production of hosiery, cotton knitwear, and underwear has developed quite significantly in Syria. Mostly these products are produced in small enterprises. Cotton yarn and hosiery fabrics produced in the country are consumed domestically and exported in large quantities mainly to neighboring Arab countries. The cotton ginning industry is represented by 58 factories, most of which are equipped with outdated equipment. Approximately 1.5 dozen state textile companies have at their disposal more than 500 thousand spindles and over 4.5 thousand looms. The wide scope of capital construction necessitated the need for the state to carry out a number of practical measures aimed at accelerating the development of the cement industry. The total cement production capacity in Syria is about 5 million tons per year, which makes it possible to allocate a sufficient amount for export. The largest factories in this industry are in Tartusi (capacity 6.5 thousand tons of cement per day), Adre (about 4 thousand tons), Aleppo (2 thousand tons), Hama (1 thousand tons). The production of building materials is established at a ceramics factory in Hama, capable of producing up to 30 million tiles per year, factories producing glass and sanitary products and at some other enterprises. The chemical and petrochemical industries play an increasingly important role in the economic life of the country. Among the products they produce, phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers, urea and ammonia, detergents, varnishes and paints should be noted. Homs became a major center for the production of fertilizers in the 80s. In addition to the plant with a capacity of 140 thousand tons of ammonia and nitric acid per year, in 1982 a new enterprise with a design capacity of 300 thousand tons of ammonia and 315 thousand tons of urea per year was put into operation. In 1983, a plant for processing 800 thousand tons of phosphates per year was put into operation. It also produces calcium nitrate, sulfuric acid, ammonia and a number of other products. The leading manufacturer of paints and varnishes is the state-owned paints and chemicals company Omayyad. Its annual production is 15 thousand tons of products. Syria devotes an important place to the development of the food industry. Enterprises in this industry produce products such as pasteurized milk, butter and vegetable oil, flour, pasta, sugar, tobacco products, various drinks and juices. Great prospects in this area are associated with increasing capacity for the production of canned vegetables and fruits, a noticeable impetus to the development of which was given with the commissioning of three canning factories in Hasek, Mayadini, and Idlib. The sugar industry was established in 1950. Large factories are located in Damascus and Homs. Enterprises mainly refine raw cane sugar imported from Cuba and only partially process their own sugar beets. The oil industry is represented by more than 400 small enterprises that produce cottonseed, sesame, olive, flaxseed and some other types of vegetable oils. Relatively new branches of Syrian industry include: mechanical engineering, electronics, and electrical engineering. Enterprises in these industries produce refrigerators, televisions, washing machines, stoves, electric motors, transformers, batteries, cables, tractors and other products. However, the production of these industries is based largely on the use of imported raw materials, materials, components and components, which, in conditions of tension in the monetary and financial sphere, limits the capabilities of the relevant enterprises. 8.2. Agriculture Although absolute indicators characterizing the state of agriculture are growing, relative indicators are noticeably decreasing, reflecting the process of economic diversification, indicating the transformation of the country from an agricultural one to an agro-industrial one. The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) is 17%, its products account for 15% of the country's exports, but it still employs the majority of the population - 53%. Land suitable for agriculture in Syria amounts to 6.1 million hectares. At the same time, irrigated lands reach 1.09 million hectares, rainfed lands - about 3.4 million hectares, 1.5 million hectares are allocated for fallow, and more than 500 thousand hectares are not cultivated. Pastures spread over 8.3 million hectares, forest lands over 523 thousand hectares, rocky soils and sandstones over 3 million hectares, swamps and lakes over 116 thousand hectares. Conditions for agricultural production are only relatively favorable and stable harvests are obtained only from irrigated areas. In order to better use the land fund and to determine priority areas in the development of agriculture, Syria was divided into 5 “agricultural stabilization zones” depending on the amount of precipitation and the duration of the rainy season. The first zone includes territories with precipitation over 350 mm and is divided into 2 areas: with precipitation over 600 mm and with precipitation within 350 - 600 mm, where it is possible to collect 2 harvests of wheat, legumes and other summer crops per season 1 time in 3 of the year. The second zone covers areas with precipitation of 250 - 350 mm, where conditions are created for collecting 2 harvests of barley in one season, and wheat, legumes and other summer crops are also grown. The third zone extends to areas with precipitation of at least 250 mm for at least six months, which ensures the collection of 1-2 barley harvests at least once every 3 years. The fourth zone includes lands where precipitation does not exceed 200–250 mm for six months and where barley and forage grasses are grown. The fifth zone includes areas where rain-fed agriculture is impossible. Such a classification of lands was the first step towards identifying the most promising lands, through the intensification of which success in the rise of agriculture can be ensured. Another direction in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production is strengthening its material and technical base by accumulating funds in capitalist-type farms, cooperative and state ones. Nowadays, serious changes have been achieved in the agricultural sector in terms of its technical equipment. There are about 50 thousand tractors of various capacities and 3 thousand combines. In addition, 80 thousand pumps, 65 thousand modern plows, more than 6 thousand seeders, 3 thousand stationary threshers, 25 thousand mechanical sprinklers and about 1 thousand sprayers, not counting thousands of manual ones, are used. An important event was the laws on the organization of agrarian relations and on agrarian reform (1958), which limited the degree of feudal exploitation of peasants, regulated rent, hiring procedures, and stipulated some measures of social protection for ordinary commodity producers. Syrian agriculture is developing as a non-monocultural orientation - 75 types of crops are harvested annually - and provides a wide range of food and industrial crops. Cultivated lands are distributed under different types of products as follows: - - up to 50% are cereals; - 3% pulses; - 5% vegetables and melons; - 4% technical - 1% fodder - 11% fruit. Almost 1/3 of the cultivated area remains fallow. In crop production, the most common type of commercial product is cereals, the largest areas under which are occupied by wheat, the main food crop. The historical wheat growing areas are the northeastern regions - Hasakah, Deir ez-Zor and Raqqa, including the plains of Al-Jazeera, Hauran, as well as Homs and Hama. Wheat is sown mainly in dry land, the yields of which are largely dependent on weather conditions and are therefore unstable. However, there is a tendency towards slow yield growth due to the adoption of more advanced technologies, improved soil cultivation, the use of varietal seeds, and the introduction of new social forms of production organization. The next most important crop in the country's grain balance is barley, the main cultivation areas of which are formed around Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Hasak, Deir ez-Zor on land that is somewhat even larger than the area under wheat. The third place in the production of grains, although in significantly smaller quantities compared to the above-mentioned crops, is occupied by corn, the area under which tends to increase. Sorghum has long occupied a prominent place in the country's grain balance. For decades, it was one of the most common crops cultivated in the foothills in rain-fed areas. Its popularity was determined by the high degree of cereal utilization and resistance to weather conditions. However, due to rising living standards and changing nutrition standards, this plant is gradually being forced out of peasant fields. Since the 70s, persistent attempts have been made to cultivate rice in Syria. The main experiments with this crop are carried out on abundantly irrigated lands in the Euphrates Valley in specially created farms as part of a pilot project. Predominantly early ripening forms with good taste are being introduced. The inclusion of rice in the local cereal assortment is caused by its high marketability, the need to reduce imports and diversify the diet of the population. However, so far, despite favorable forecasts, there is no noticeable evidence in Syria of the completion of experiments and the transition to rice production on an expanded basis. Leguminous crops are cultivated in relatively small quantities, mainly for domestic consumption. The most popular crop is lentils, which are unpretentious to growing conditions; food and feed varieties of which are constantly in high demand on the market. The main area of ​​its production is Aleppo governorate, although focal crops are also found in other areas. A large place in the crops of grain legumes is given to peas, which in some years surpass lentils in terms of such an indicator as cropland. Other types of legumes are also cultivated for food purposes, in particular beans, beans, and some local varieties of legumes. The structure of agricultural production includes the production of grasses, which form a certain share of the feed fund. The main grass crop is vetch, harvested for grain and hay. Its cultivation areas stretch from north to south along the Aleppo-Derya line. In addition to the vetch, Arabian lupine is widespread. On a smaller scale, the production of alfalfa and clover is practiced, the crops of which occupy mainly the inter-row spaces in garden farms. In general, 40 - 60 thousand people are annually planted with forage grasses in Syria. ha. Syria produces 12 types of industrial crops. Among them, the leading role belongs to cotton. Over the past 10 years, the area under cotton has amounted to 140–180 thousand hectares, although previously it was significantly small. The largest areas of crops are located in the Euphrates Valley; approximately a quarter of the gross cotton harvest occurs in the foothills area between Aleppo and Homs; a relatively small part of the crop is harvested from plantations in the Latakia governorate. Since the beginning of the 80s, there has been a consistent increase in harvests, which do not fall below 400 thousand tons. The second largest crop under cultivation is sesame, cultivated mainly in the Euphrates Valley, between Raqqa and Abu Kemal and partly in the governorates of Homs, Hama, and Latakia. Syria is known as a major producer of world-famous varieties of tobacco, and tobacco growing is an important branch of agriculture. About 14 thousand hectares are occupied by tobacco crops, and its production averages 20 thousand tons and is concentrated mainly in the Latakia governorate. Tobaccos of the “Latakian” group are especially valued in European markets, and a variety of local tobacco, tumbak, is used by nargile smokers in many Eastern countries. Beet growing is also a promising branch of agriculture. The country faces an acute problem of increasing sugar production, and therefore expanding crops and increasing yields is an urgent task. In the mid-70s, the demand prevailed to increase beet plantings by reducing the area under other crops, in particular cotton. Nowadays, beets are grown in the western part of the country - Homs, El-Gaba, Tell Salhab, as well as in the east, in the Euphrates Valley, on areas of 30 - 33 thousand hectares. Sugar cane is also cultivated on land of comparable size. Other industrial crops are also grown, in particular sunflowers, peanuts, Indian sorghum, used for knitting mats and brooms, caraway seeds, anise, and some others on small areas. Syria is a large producer of vegetable and melon crops, of which the list of only the main ones includes up to 25 species. Cultivated forms differ in terms of ripening, and therefore enter the market evenly throughout a significant part of the year. The area occupied by them is stable and averages 260 thousand hectares over a number of years. Based on the size of the allotted wedge (about 70%), watermelons, tomatoes, potatoes, melons, cucumbers, cabbage, and okra stand out sharply. Their harvest is sold mainly on the domestic market. Syria is also a traditional center of horticulture, where 20 types of fruit crops are cultivated on an area exceeding 600 thousand hectares. The most ancient and widespread is the olive culture, which is extremely diverse in quality and appearance, the plantings of which are systematically growing and now reach 400 thousand hectares. The areas of its production stretch along the coast, located in the foothills, partly on mountain slopes. Syria is one of the largest centers of viticulture. The main plantations of this crop (67 thousand hectares) are concentrated in the governorates of Aleppo, Idlib, Es-Suwayda, and Homs. The most popular are local varieties with large, light berries and high taste. There are more than 50 million vines in the country. Among other horticultural crops, the most common are pistachios, apples, almonds, dates, and cherries. Growing attention is being paid to apricot, a promising export crop whose processed products - apricots and dried apricots - have medicinal properties. Of the citrus fruits, for which up to 20 thousand hectares are allocated, oranges stand out. Livestock farming is the second most important agricultural sector in Syria, developing, however, mainly on an extensive basis. The country's dairy herd numbers about 500 thousand heads, of which 60% are dairy cows. In general, the number of cattle, including camels, ranges from 700 to 800 thousand heads. Small cattle are represented mainly by goats, the number of which is 1 - 1.2 million, and sheep, the number of which is extremely unstable and varies from 10 to 12 million heads in different years. There are also other types of livestock used for transporting goods or as tax, in particular horses and mules, the herd of which is declining and now amounts to 30 and 20 thousand heads, respectively, as well as donkeys, the number of which is maintained at the level of 190 - 200 thousand. Poultry farming as a highly profitable industry received an impetus for development in the 70s, when poultry farms of the capitalist type began to intensively take shape, most of them falling into the category of suburban farms. The total number of livestock now reaches 19 million. Geese and ducks are bred in small quantities, and turkeys and pigeons are bred in relatively large quantities. The base for the development of beekeeping in the form of 120 - 150 thousand hives is also preserved; individual farms also do not abandon the traditional occupation for Syria in previous times associated with the breeding of silkworms. Fishing still occupies a modest place in the structure of agricultural production, although in recent years there has been an increase in the catch, now exceeding 11 thousand. tons per year. At the same time, sea fishing is losing ground to river fishing, which provides more than 75% of the total production of fisheries. 9. Transport Transport in Syria is poorly developed. Road transport plays a vital role in the transportation of goods and passengers within the country. The movement of passenger and cargo flows is now carried out along a single network of roads, which continues to be improved. Historically, the road system was mainly concentrated in the western part of the country along the Mediterranean coast and along the north-south axis, which met economic needs and was determined by the level of economic development of the territories located here. The main transport arteries of the country stretch from the Turkish border to the Jordanian along the line Bab-el-Khawa - Hama - Homs - Damascus - Daraa (470 km), from the Turkish border to the Lebanese - Kassab - Latakia - Baniyas - Tartus (170 km) and further to Tripoli, Beirut, Saidu, from the Lebanese border to the Iraqi one - Damascus - Abu Shamat (300 km) to Baghdad. In the 70s and 80s, the length of roads with improved surfaces increased significantly. Nowadays, the length of asphalt concrete highways reaches almost 40 thousand km. The development of the road network was accompanied by an increase in the vehicle fleet. In the second half of the 90s, there were up to 490 thousand transport units of all types in the country. Compared to 1980, by the end of the decade the number of pickups, minibuses, and trucks had increased significantly. 35% of vehicles and about 50% of passenger cars are concentrated in Damascus and the capital governorate. The country's vehicle fleet is diverse. There is a large share of Japanese cars in it, and there is a certain number of cars of Western European brands. Rail transport in the national transport system ranks second after road transport, although it appeared in Syria much earlier: the first Damascus-Beirut railway line was opened in 1885. Historically, two centers of railway construction developed in Syria: in the southern part, connected with Lebanon, a narrow gauge was laid, in the north a standard gauge was used. As a result, the road network was artificially broken. In 1995, the Syrian government bought out all the existing railways that were in the hands of foreign capital and later began building a network of roads that met international standards. Currently, the construction of the Tartus-Latakia line is underway, and the construction of the Damascus-Deraa and Deir ez-Zor-Abu Kamal railways is planned. The total length of the country's railways is now about 3 thousand km. Aviation transport began to develop in Syria in the second half of the 60s. The limited national territory and the relatively small needs for transporting people and cargo by air are factors that significantly constrain the use of air transport on domestic routes. Nevertheless, local air routes connect not only Damascus, Aleppo, El-Qamishli, Latakia, Deir ez-Zor, Tadmor, Homs, where there are corresponding airfields and flight support services, but also some other settlements in which takeoff and landing facilities have been built sites. Moreover, all flights are carried out from the center to the periphery and back along linear routes, and provincial cities are not connected with each other. Civil aviation, which was initially created through the efforts of the state, is under the jurisdiction of the state organization “El-Khutut El-Jawiya Essuriyya” - “Sirienair”. In the mid-90s, the national aircraft fleet consisted of 12 aircraft, serviced by Syrian crews. By the beginning of the 80s, Damascus International Airport (about 30 km from the capital) was fully operational, equipped with the latest technology and capable of receiving the most modern airliners, including Airbuses, and processing large quantities of cargo. The airfield has two runways 2.6 and 2.7 km long and 60 m wide. The airport's capacity is 2 million passengers per year. Water transport has not become widespread in Syria. Despite the presence of inland reservoirs and rivers, there is practically no river navigation in the country due to the irregularity of flow and the turbulent nature of the rivers. Even on the most full-flowing Euphrates, river transportation is carried out mainly on short routes. Syria's own maritime transport, although landlocked, is in its infancy and consists mainly of a few medium-tonnage bulk carriers moving within the Mediterranean basin. The functions of the small fleet are limited to cabotage transportation in the sea section from Turkey to Lebanon. The main volume of trade export-import operations is carried out through Latakia and Tartus - large national ports, as well as Baniyas, used as an oil terminal. Pipeline transport is represented primarily by oil pipelines for the transit pumping of crude oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia to the Mediterranean coast. The three routes on the Kirkuk-Tripoli route were built at different times in the 30s, 40s and 60s. In the 50s, the Kirkuk - Baniyas and Abqaiq - Saida lines were laid. The duplication of oil pipelines was caused by the low throughput of the first lines, a disadvantage that was eliminated by increasing the diameters of subsequent ones. The country has created a network of inland oil pipelines to transport liquid carbohydrates from production sites to processing sites in Homs and Baniyas and for delivery to the oil terminal at the port of Baniyas. In 1968, the main line Karachuk - Homs - Tartus was built with a length of 650 km and a throughput capacity of 8 million tons per year. 10. Foreign economic relations Foreign trade plays a big role in the economic life of Syria. The weak development of industry makes the country extremely dependent on the import of a wide range of industrial goods. Syria completely covers its needs for machinery and equipment, means of transport, ferrous metals and many other types of industrial products through imports. On the other hand, due to the one-sided development of agriculture, Syria depends on the export of many types of agricultural products. General trade results, million sires. f., current prices |Year |Export |Import |Turnover |Balance |% coverage | | | | | | |import | | | | | | |export | |1970 |775 |1365 |2140 |-590 |56.8 | |1975 |3440 |6236 |9676 |-2796 |55.2 | |1980 |8273 |16188 |24461 |-7915 |51.1 | |1985 |6427 |15570 |21997 |-9143 |41.3 | |1990 |47282 |26936 |74218 |+20346 |175.5 | |1995 |44562 |52856 |97418 |-8294 |84.3 | The main export items were and remain food, raw materials and fuel, which in the 70s - 90s accounted for an average of over 75% of the total export value. An increasingly prominent role in Syria's exports is played by the export of chemical goods, equipment and finished industrial products. The country's exports included such products as dyes, plastics, detergents, perfumes, equipment for digging wells, winches, electrical equipment and household appliances, metal products, etc. But in the commodity structure of industrial exports, the main place was occupied by cotton yarn, shoes, and various textiles. goods, food industry products, cement, etc., that is, technologically simple goods. Despite the fact that the export of fuel has taken the main place in the country's exports, Syria is still forced to import oil and petroleum products in ever-increasing quantities. This is explained by the fact that the country for a long time received light oil from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, and therefore its plants were built with the expectation of processing imported light oil, and not its own heavy oil. Another important import item is finished industrial products, the import of which accounts for on average 20–22% of the total import value. The main place in it is occupied by the rolling of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, metal structures, scientific instruments and instruments. Developed capitalist states in the 70s - 90s occupied a leading place in Syria's foreign trade. They accounted for over 50% of the total value of Syrian trade. Syria supplies these countries with oil, some agricultural goods (dried onions, legumes, tobacco, cotton) and finished industrial products (cotton fabrics and yarn, clothing, handicrafts, perfumes). Syrian imports from this group of states are wide and varied - from various machines and equipment to household electrical appliances and lighters. Syria's largest trading partners are the states of the European Community (EU), primarily Italy, Germany, France - 35-40% of Syria's total trade. The US accounts for 4–5% of the total value of Syrian trade, and Japan 3–4%. Syria is also taking steps to develop trade relations with other groups of states, primarily with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are regular buyers of not only traditional Syrian export goods, but also oil and petroleum products, industrial and consumer goods (artificial fabrics, sulfuric and sulfurous acids , triple superphosphate, transformers, etc.). In solving the problems of expanding trade turnover and increasing exports, Syria pays special attention to the development of trade and economic relations with developing countries. Syria's main trading partners among the liberated states have traditionally been Arab countries. A characteristic feature of Syria's foreign trade policy in the 70s - 90s was protectionism. The country applied various forms of foreign trade regulation, but the most important were licensing, exchange controls and non-tariff restrictions. Along with trade, Syria also uses other forms of economic relations with foreign countries. The most widespread are credit and financial cooperation, the participation of foreign firms and companies in the development of the country's natural resources, the construction of various production facilities, the purchase and implementation of modern technology, the provision of engineering services, the creation of mixed enterprises, and the training of Syrian specialists. At the same time, Syria practices concluding intergovernmental agreements on economic, credit, financial, scientific and technical cooperation on a bilateral and multilateral basis. Recently, tourism has been actively developing (profit in 1995 - 150 million US dollars) 11. Cities. 11.1 Damascus. Damascus is especially good in spring. The gardens of the oasis are buried in a white and pink veil of blossoms. A light breeze carries the subtlest aromas of herbs and flowers. The Arabs say that when the Prophet Muhammad created pictures of paradise, he took Ghouta as a model. In the center of this huge flowering garden at the foot of Mount Kasyun lies the most ancient capital of the world. The city keeps many unsolved secrets in its depths. In ancient times it was called “the beautiful and sacred light of the East.” He played an exceptional role in the formation of many civilizations. “Damascus looked upon the ruins of a hundred empires... old Damascus should rightfully be called the eternal city,” wrote Mark Twain. This city is an important page in the ancient history of the Middle East. It is mentioned in Egyptian texts of the 18th dynasty of the pharaohs, on Assyrian tablets, and in the Bible. But the city truly went down in history during the era of Solomon. During this period, it became the capital of the Aramaic state. From that distant era, only one material monument remains - a basalt slab with a bas-relief. It was discovered during the restoration of the Umayyad mosque. The slab stood at the base of the wall of the northern part of the city. The bas-relief depicts a sphinx with a goatee, folded wings and a double crown on her head. A small apron hangs between its clawed paws. Judging by the nature of the execution, the work belongs to Phoenician masters. In the southwest of the city wall rises the Nur-ed-Din Tower, a typical Muslim fortification structure. The blocks of the lower part are much larger than those that lie above. The tower, preserved since 1168, bears traces of numerous reconstructions. On the site of two ancient Roman gates, Nur-ed-Din built the so-called Small and Southern Gates. Above the latter is a slab with a Kufic inscription stating that the atabek collects a fee from merchants going to Iraq and returning back. The gate is still decorated with a semicircular arch. The modern Christian district of Damascus, Bab Toum, is widely known for its hospital, shops, and clean, green streets. Its name comes from the name of the gate built under the Ayyubids on the site of the ancient Roman ones in 1128. The monumental gate, which attracts the attention of tourists, is an example of Muslim fortification architecture. They stand almost in the center of the modern city, and once served a protective function. The remains of the destroyed battlement wall adjacent to the gate have been preserved. The people called the northern gate - Bab es-Salami - the Gate of Salvation: it was especially difficult for the enemy to penetrate the city through them, since the high-water Barada and numerous trees interfered. Adjacent to the Bab Sharqi gate is an area with narrow streets, old houses made of clay and stone with a characteristic overhanging second floor. The sound of hammers can be heard from small workshops. Famous Damascus artisans live here. The fame of their products has long been worldwide. Boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl are interspersed with huge or very small tray dishes. Turned pitchers with thin necks stand next to a coffee pot and cups in yellow metal stands with oriental designs. A tourist who accidentally gets here can see robes embroidered with gold threads, the famous damask brocade, and pointed leather slippers with curved toes. The numerous mosques of Damascus create a unique flavor. In 1213, the Ayyubids built their first mosque - Jami Muzaffari, which repeated the Umayyad mosque in plan. There is also a courtyard with a swimming pool in the center, surrounded by porticoes with ancient Corinthian columns. The courtyard is a piece of living nature - a necessary part of mosques. The Koran says: “And let plants and waters unite with human creation, as part of one nature, erected by the hand of Allah...” A square minaret rises above the northern entrance of the mosque. The prayer hall is divided by two rows of arcades, which create a feeling of lightness and airiness. Above each of the seven doors there is a wooden rubber grate. On the stone mihrab there remains a trace of an ornament once painted with oil paint. The Jami at-Tabua Mosque was built in 1234, burned down in 1299, and then rebuilt. Once upon a time there was a caravanserai in its place, which was notorious. It was liquidated, again using the plan of the Umayyad mosque, and Jami at-Tabua was built. The spacious courtyard is surrounded by porticoes. A prayer hall stretches along the southern wall. What is striking is the poverty of the interior, bare walls, lack of decoration, which is very typical of the architecture of that period. Only the mihrab of this mosque is revered as one of the most perfect mihrabs in Damascus. It stands out against the background of dull walls with its fine stone carvings and bright floral and geometric patterns. The sides are decorated with thin twisted columns. Above the mihrab itself there is a voluminous arch, decorated with an interlacing of flower garlands. Under the arch there are two square carved plates, between them there is a medallion made with great skill. The heart of Damascus is the Umayyad Mosque. Its extensive courtyard is limited by a vaulted gallery on three sides. In the fourth there is a prayer hall. We pass a domed pavilion with thin columns where the treasury was once kept. Heading to the prayer hall, we pass by a traditional fountain and ablution pool. Two rows of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which were once gilded, form three aisles. There is a massive dome above the center of the hall. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with inlay and carvings. This is a brilliant example of Muslim applied art. A round staircase leads to a white marble pulpit. In the eastern part of the prayer hall there is a marble pavilion in which, according to legend, the head of John the Baptist rests. The tomb of the saint is equally respected by both Christians and Muslims. The tombstone is a masterpiece of oriental art, as is the large mihrab at the southern wall. Speaking about the Umayyad Mosque, one cannot fail to mention its three minarets. In the south-eastern corner of the Christian temple, a tower has been preserved, the so-called Jesus Minaret. The southwestern minaret, built, like the first, on one of the towers of the former Temple of Jupiter, arose in the 15th century and retains features of the Egyptian style. And finally, in the northern part is the Bride’s Minaret, the oldest, created in the Umayyad period, with the exception of the upper part, which arose in recent times. Through the northern door, decorated with bronze reliefs, we leave the courtyard of the mosque. We walk along the Byzantine colonnade, passing two ancient madrassas. Before us is the tomb of Salah ad-Din, a talented commander and ruler who liberated this land from the crusaders. Under the corrugated dome there are two tombstones - Salah ad-Din and his companion. The frieze of the building is decorated with verses from the Koran, made in the manner of Kufic writing, and all four sides are decorated with stone carvings repeating geometric motifs. The tomb as a whole is an example of decorative art from the Ayyubid period. Its appearance changed somewhat at the end of the 19th century. Almost every stone in Damascus bears the stamp of history. It is strange that behind these ancient walls a completely modern city is noisy. From the Hamidiye market we get to another one - Souq al-Harir. There was once a famous silk bazaar here. And nearby are the domes of the old Khan Gumrok, where, after long caravan journeys, merchants and travelers found peace and relaxation. Adjacent to this inn are the 17th-century baths, now partially dismantled and converted into market premises. Among the historical monuments of old Damascus, the Azema Palace, built in the 18th century by one of the rulers of Damascus, occupies a special place. The palace is unique in that it provides examples of all types of Syrian decorative art. Having examined it, you can get a complete picture of the arrangement of rooms and the interior decoration of the famous Syrian palaces, their male and female halves, and the beauty of the high walls, decorated with inlaid wood and marble. You can listen to the melodious murmur of the fountains in the small courtyard and sit in the shade of lemon and orange trees. Nowadays a folk art museum has been created here. The number of visitors is growing from year to year. From Mount Qasyoun you can see the whole of Damascus. In the center is a gray mass of closely huddled houses, high arrows of minarets and towers. Closer to the outskirts there are streets surrounded by greenery. Once upon a time there were magnificent gardens here, and there is still a mention of them in the names of the avenues. For example, Abu Rummani is one of the most beautiful streets in the city. Her mansions are hidden among the trees, and each is completely different from the other. They are decorated with cast-iron gratings, wavy ribbons of balconies, picturesque tiny courtyards with bright spots of well-groomed flower beds. Almost every street or district of Damascus bears traces of history. This is Maliki Street, lined with multi-storey modern buildings and overlooking the square where there is a monument to the fighter for the national independence of Syria, Colonel Maliki. The architecture of Damascus is a unique synthesis of the latest international trends with elements of oriental decor. The buildings of the old part of the city are unique. They are distinguished by massive walls and huge portals. In the 1930s, reinforced concrete structures began to be used in construction. This is how the Oryan Palace hotel was built, facing the mountains with wide verandas. The hotel rooms are connected to the outside world by a glazed door with an openwork barrier, which is very practical in hot climates. Open verandas cascade down. Their iron grilles are simple in design, as is the slab of the crowning cornice, which blocks the sheer rays of the sun. Damascus is rich not only in traces and finds of thousands. It is the capital of a young country, open to modern cultural, economic and social aspirations, a country walking the path of peace and progress. The leading sector of the Syrian economy is the textile industry. Damask fabrics have always been the glory of the country. The large state-owned plants “Khumasiya” and “Debs” are also known abroad. Wandering in the narrow streets adjacent to Hamidiyya, you can come across the following sight: a gray-haired man in a loose shirt sits at a primitive machine, his hands move quickly, and before our eyes meters of blue silk fabric, in demand among tourists, appear before our eyes. Such craft enterprises still exist. And there are quite a few of them yet. The most beautiful landscapes and ancient architectural monuments in the vicinity of Damascus, once seen, cannot be forgotten. This most beautiful sight gave rise to many poetic lines, and among them the verses of the most popular modern Arab poet Rashid al-Yassin: O Damascus, I admire you! I love the spaciousness of your morning streets, the splashes of the first rays and the scent of gardens, and when in the evenings over the caps of the mountains the crimson sunset blazes, illuminating the golden minaret in the distance, O Damascus, I admire you! The lyrical mood is born not only among poets. Damascus, the ancient and modern capital, remains in the heart of everyone who has visited here. 11.2 Latakia. Latakia is the largest port in Syria. The life of the port reflects the life of the country. New trends are pushing aside old traditions. Every morning, huge trucks carrying technical equipment for construction sites, timber, cars and other Syrian imports leave the port gates. They travel deep into the country: to Aleppo, Deir ez-Zor, far to the north, where the oil refining and oil production industry is developing. The bustle, the usual business noise, the roar in the port give way to relative silence: it’s time for lunch. Workers go to the tap and wash their hands and faces. Having laid a scarf on the ground, they kneel, turn their faces towards Mecca and begin prayer. Then they slowly unwrap the bundle of food: unleavened flatbread, olives, a little laban (thick sour milk). The sacred hour of eating has arrived. Small traders deliver “Arab sandwiches” on homemade carts. This is the most popular food in Syria. There are fruits on the trays, and in summer there is a chilled date drink in jugs. The ice is crushed and placed in these jugs right here, right on the pavement. Like most seaside towns, the streets of Latakia run upward towards the hill where the Crusader fortress once stood. The red glare of the rising sun plays in the windows of the houses. Lots of new buildings. In recent years, the city has changed beyond recognition. The houses are multi-story, with tiers of balconies. The first floors attract attention with numerous display windows of new stores. Relatively wide streets with architecturally interesting houses crowd the old town. But they are all directed towards the sea, the layout has remained the same since Hellenic times. The history of the city goes back to an even more distant era. During the time of the Phoenicians there was a small harbor here. Ancient coins brought to us the image of a ship passing under the Latakian lighthouse, loaded with bread. The city at that distant time was the center of the Phoenician state of Ugarit and was located seven kilometers from the modern city. Then it was alternately owned by the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. Alexander the Great conquered it after his victory at Issus. During the Seleucid period, it became one of the largest in the country along with Antioch and Apamea. Latakia the city was named by Seleucus I in honor of his mother. The city flourished during the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Beautiful buildings and temples were surrounded by green gardens and vineyards. The old part of the city is still decorated with the Triumphal Arch, through which the valiant Roman legionaries passed, the chariots of the emperors passed, accompanied by slaves in chains. Among the fragments of the arch's ornament are the helmets of legionnaires and their weapons. The ancient colonnade has also been preserved. It offers views of the city and the sea. The sky is visible between the slender columns. At different times of the day, the circle of columns is illuminated differently by the sun, creating a feeling of perpetual motion. The construction site was chosen impeccably. In the 5th – 6th centuries, the city was shaken by two strong earthquakes, which destroyed many buildings, temples, colonnades, which were the pride of the inhabitants. The city also suffered during numerous new attempts to take control of it. Arab caliphs and Byzantine emperors, Seljuk Turks and crusaders fought for it. The city was attacked, robbed, burned, but he continued to live. During the French Mandate it becomes the capital of the Alawite state. When the last French soldier left the land of Latakia, the city was reborn to a new life. Traces of past eras, side by side with modernity, create an originality of a special kind. In the old part of the city there are narrow streets and long blank stone fences. From time to time, figures covered from head to toe in black flash under the arches. This area has preserved the features of the first centuries of Islam. Above the labyrinth of streets and dead ends rises the most beautiful mosque in the city - Moghrabi, or Moroccan, built in the last century. Twenty-eight steps lead up. In the small courtyard there is a fountain and the remains of an antique column. The walls of the prayer hall are decorated with typical Muslim ornaments: intertwined plant branches, flowers of fairy gardens, but nowhere is there a single figure of a person or animal. The floors are marble with an alternating black and white pattern. Around the courtyard there are small rooms-cells. This is a madrasah. Behind the walls of Mograbi is an old cemetery. On the opposite side of the street is a tiny hotel with modest rooms around a courtyard. From the top platform of Mograbi you can see the whole of Latakia. New features are visible. The buildings of two faculties of the University of Latakia have recently been erected. Several new hotels have appeared. The mild Mediterranean climate, historical monuments, and sea beaches contribute to the development of tourism, which in the near future should become an important source of foreign currency. The doors of the cafe are welcomingly open, where oriental cuisine is presented in all its diversity. The fleet of passenger cars, brightly colored and loud, has increased. Just like many centuries ago, the busiest place in the city in the early morning is the market. Under wooden canopies covered with mats, piles of apples, oranges, lemons are laid out, the indispensable greens without which not a single Syrian meal is complete. Buyers are mostly men. This is their family responsibility. The wife at home is busy taking care of her numerous offspring, and the husband, with a bag in his hand, walks around the market rows, concentrates and calmly prices the prices, clicks his tongue disapprovingly, feels the goods, and all this slowly, with knowledge of the matter and a certain pleasure. As the sun sets, the city becomes empty. He goes to sleep early. The only light is from street lamps and shops, where even at late hours trade is carried out, catering to arriving sailors. It’s hard to believe that just an hour ago the embankment was crowded with a crowd of people walking - whole families, flocks of pretty girls and separate groups of boys. If a girl and a boy go together, then they are certainly engaged. The young man only looks at the girl he likes from afar; he has no right to address her, much less walk along the embankment together. Parents often choose brides and grooms for their children, and they obediently agree. And often the bride and groom meet for the first time at their wedding. Divorce in Latakia is an extremely rare phenomenon. Everything is interesting in Latakia - its history, monuments of the past, traditions, and life of today. And everyone should visit this city. 11.3. Aleppo. Throughout its history, Aleppo witnessed a huge number of tragedies and was the scene of many fierce clashes and devastating raids of ancient peoples. Moaning and crying accompanied the crowds of those being taken into slavery. The walls of the ancient citadel could tell many stories about the courage of the city's inhabitants. During the period from X to XV alone, dozens of raids were carried out on the city. But the city continued to live, resisting not only the conquerors, but also the earthquakes that left their traces on it. The life of Syria over many centuries is reflected in the Aleppo Museum. It is located in the city center, in a bright house surrounded by a small garden. The fate of this building is symbolic. It was built during the French Mandate and was intended for the city municipality. However, political events have changed a lot. The Syrians began to govern the city, and by decision of the national city council the building was transferred to the museum. At the entrance to the museum, 3 huge figures made of gray stone support the portico. This is a triad from the ancient Aramaic city of Guzan - statues of two gods and a goddess. The massive feet of the gods trample the backs of animals. The composition is extremely expressive. The lions' mouths are grinning viciously, their eyes are sparkling, and the bull's horns are threateningly pointed forward. Disproportionally huge, with bright whites and black obsidianon pupils, the eyes of the gods make an indelible impression. Antiquity itself looks at us with these mystical eyes. The sculptures once supported the portico of the palace of an Aramean ruler. On the dress of the female deity Ishtar there is a cuneiform text: “This is the palace of Kapara. My grandfather and father died and became immortal, but they could not do what I did. If anyone erases my name in order to put his own, then let his seven sons be burned before Haddad (the main god of Guzana).” From the gates of the museum you can walk to the walls of the citadel, from which you can see the whole of Aleppo - a gray-yellow city, with arrows of minarets, domes of mosques, multi-story modern houses, the styles of eras are intricately mixed here. Aleppo has the world's longest covered market, which has remained largely unchanged for centuries. There is still a corporate system for selling spices, textiles, ropes, tents and other things in this huge market. What can you find here! In the gold rows you will be offered rings and earrings - ancient and latest models, chased belts, temple jewelry. Overhanging thick vaults create a special atmosphere. It is cool in summer, warm and dry in winter. The market stalls have not been rebuilt at all since the 15th century. And these shops look really unique. The narrow and long openings of the entrances are framed by wooden doors with colored patterns painted on them. To the side lies a huge castle, whose place has long been in a museum. The feeling of returning to the deep Middle Ages is complemented by the sight of the massive gate of the khan - an old caravanserai on the territory of the market. The vast courtyard where laden camels once stood is empty. The windows on the galleries surrounding the courtyard on four sides are boarded up. Now there are warehouses there. Not far from the market are the ancient gates of the city. There are many mosques and madrassas here. A beautiful portal decorated with stone carvings. This is the Sharafiya madrasah, built in 1242. Now this building houses a library, famous for storing rare manuscripts. There are white squares on the gray stones of the patio. One small one is in the center, the other larger one borders the first one. Among the numerous mosques, a special place is occupied by the Great Umayyad Mosque, which arose on the territory of a Christian temple, which in turn was built on the site of a pagan one, which is very typical for Syria. Above the mosque rises a slender square minaret, still considered the best in the city. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with expensive wood inlaid with ivory. Aleppo is the center of extensive agricultural areas. Therefore, it is here that numerous enterprises for processing olives, sugar beets, and producing juices, butter, and cheese are concentrated. The Aleppo brewery, which produces ASH-Sharq beer, is known throughout the country. The tractor plant is very popular, the products of which can be seen in the fields of the country. Aleppo is widely known for its cultural traditions. Many artists and composers, poets and writers came from this city. The concerts of the young composer, musician and singer Abed Azri invariably attract attention. This talented singer, with a beautiful and strong voice, has set to music several texts from the ancient epic poem of Gilgamesh, some Sufi poems, and modern poems by Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi poets. Abed Azri's music always draws on the best examples of Arabic poetry. And if poetry remains purely national, then music, in his opinion, should change and correspond to the spirit of the times: “We should not go back and use only our traditions. We must develop national music and, by developing it, bring it closer to life.” This is the artistic credo of Abed Azri. 12. What's interesting? 12.1 Krak de Chevalais – the castle of the knights. Syria is the only country in the east that has preserved crusader castles. They rise on the coast and in the mountains, presenting a unique architecture, being monuments to a distant, troubled time of battles and religious fanaticism of the famous crusades. Approaching the Krak des Chevaliers castle, you forget for a moment that you live in the 20th century. A narrow drawbridge, iron gates, numerous passages, and towers make you forget reality. It seems that you are about to hear the sound of horse hooves, the ringing of swords and the voices of knights. Krak des Chevaliers is the only restored crusader castle in Syria. It stands on a busy highway, 25 kilometers from the Latakia-Homs road. The citadel rises on a mountain, which overlooks a large area all the way to the sea. The site was carefully chosen by ancient architects. From the top platform you can see any movement on the road. Each of the fortress buildings is very unique in its architecture, interior, and the role it played in the life of the knights. The 12th-century chapel with lancet windows is a characteristic basilica of Western European type and does not resemble the Byzantine churches often found in Syria. During restoration work, a fresco depicting the Virgin Mary and Jesus was found here. The knights turned their gaze to her, begging for protection and patronage. With the exception of the fresco, the only bright spot, the interior of the chapel is restrained and spare. It reflects the atmosphere of life in the fortress. In the center of the fortress there is a semicircular tower with lower and upper halls. Light enters it through three huge windows. The adjacent buildings are a classic example of fortification art, with all the innovations that eastern architecture did not know. This is a terrace with crenellated parapets. This is a glacis - a flat stone embankment in front of the outer moat of the fortress, protecting Krak des Chevaliers from earthquakes and mines. It is not surprising that the fortress could not be taken during any siege. The stone towers of the fortress hide many unsolved secrets. One of these towers is called by the Arabs “the tower of the king’s daughter.” At the base it had a secret door. Another secret door led from the central tower to the moat. Halls with massive supporting pillars give way to a vaulted hall where there is a huge oven for baking bread. There are a lot of storage and residential premises on the numerous floors of the towers. In the courtyard of the fortress, overgrown with grass, there is water in huge tanks. By the way, these tanks are unique structures both in size and in the nature of their architecture. In the fortress they served not only as reservoirs, but also as anti-seismic structures, and sometimes served as storage and production facilities. Krak des Chevaliers gives a complete picture of the peculiarities of the original, gradually disappearing architecture. But how did the inhabitants of such castles live, what did they love and what were their hobbies? The ascetic life of the fortress, the monotony of this life, the constant longing for the homeland were expressed in poetry, only a few examples of which have survived to our time. Somewhere in Europe there remained a Beautiful Lady - an object of love and endless worship. Passion and a sense of duty fought in the knight’s soul, which found expression in the famous “Song of the Crusade” by Canon de Bethune, a direct participant in two campaigns: Alas, Love, why did you tell me to cross the threshold of the Most Beautiful One, who knew how to hold me for so many years for the last time? at your feet! And now the time for our separation has come... What am I saying? Only the body leaves, God called him to his service, And the heart belongs to her entirely. Grieving for her with an orphaned soul, I go to the holy land to the east. 12.2. “A city that has never been conquered since the creation of the world” The news does not leave the pages of the newspapers: “A stunning discovery in Ebla!”, “Archaeological discoveries in Northern Syria require a revision of ancient history,” “The history of the third millennium must be rewritten!” What happened? The lands south of the city of Aleppo are deserted. The dusty red hill of Tell Mardike, which had never before attracted attention, became world famous. Archaeologists from the University of Rome and representatives of the Syrian Archaeological Department, as a result of their work, discovered the ancient city of Ebla, the name of which was found in ancient Eastern writings. The climax of the excavations came when archaeologists opened part of the royal palace and found its archives. They were in that wing of the vast building where the king of ancient Elba received guests. The last “guest” of the archive room was fire, which destroyed the wooden shelves on which numerous tablets stood in a vertical position. The fired clay was not damaged. Long centuries, sand and dust covered the priceless property with a durable blanket. The Eblaite language turned out to be one of the Semitic languages. A dictionary of Eblaite and Sumerian words was found and this made the documents easier to read. This language is close to Phoenician, but is more than a thousand years older than it. The contents of the found tablets were especially important, as they recreated the history of the state. The tablets made it possible to reconstruct the life of the mysterious Ebla from 2400 to 2250 BC. e. Ebla was the capital of a large and highly cultural state, stretching from the eastern borders of Egypt to the Persian Gulf and covering the territory of modern Turkey. Economic contacts connected Ebla with the largest cities of the ancient world, with the island of Cyprus. The Ebla archive contains numerous records of commercial transactions and contracts. Administrative and legal texts made it possible to imagine how the city and the territory under its control were governed, how the economy, finance, trade, and tax system were organized. Ebla was a major trading center, widely known in the Eastern world. Under the authority of a special office there was a huge number of officials who checked the quality of goods sent and received and determined delivery times. A special information service reported where there is a need for this type of product. Ebla established a monopoly on the purchase and sale of the most valuable goods: precious metals, fabrics, wood, pottery. The state received large incomes from trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia. A completely new, previously unknown state formation of the ancient East was discovered in Ebla. The ruler of Ebla depended on the council of elders, which included representatives of the richest families. The heir to the throne did not come to power immediately. He began his career as an ambassador to some state, as the governor of a city, and only then, if he turned out to be truly worthy, was he trusted to manage Ebla. He resolved important financial issues and concluded international treaties. The country paid great attention to education. The state strictly controlled teaching, the methods of which were borrowed from Mesopotamia. Numerous student works have survived to this day. By the way, the schools of Ebla in the 3rd millennium BC. e. Future civil servants were trained. Intense excavations yielded brilliant results. Under the Acropolis of Ebla, a part of the city was discovered with a monumental palace complex, spacious halls, a wooden colonnade, and a grand staircase. The unique fortification, palace, temple architecture, and remarkable monuments of fine art proved that the culture of Ebla, which developed under the influence of the more developed Mesopotamian culture, had in many ways its own, original character. One of the examples of applied art is a limestone bowl found during excavations. It has a quadrangular shape and was intended for ritual purposes. Basalt sculptures of deities, fragments of stones depicting processions of people following a fantastic animal, numerous interior details made with great art - all this is a small part of the wealth still hidden underground. Ebla did not have its own army. When necessary, it was hired. With the help of mercenaries, competing shopping centers were also captured. The tablets said that this is how the city on the middle reaches of the Euphrates was conquered, paying Ebla a huge ransom amount in gold and silver. However, Ebla was unable to defend itself with the help of mercenary troops. The tragedy occurred in 2250 BC. e. The troops of the Akkadian state moved to the rich, prosperous Ebla under the leadership of the commander Naram-sin. Ebla was captured and burned. Naram-sin was infinitely proud of his victory and left behind an inscription that said that the glory of the kingdom of Ebla is the glory of “a city that has never been defeated since the creation of the world.” Excavations continue. Ebla is now recognized as the most amazing archaeological find of our time. “We are expecting sensational finds,” said Arif Banassi, director of the Syrian Archaeological Authority. 12.3. Dead cities of Syria. There are more than a hundred dead cities in northern Syria. These once thriving centers are located in relatively remote mountainous areas, which saved them from complete destruction. Each of these cities is a page in the history of Syria. The heyday of many of them dates back to the 4th-5th centuries, the time of the recognition and establishment of Christianity. On the territory of the dead cities there are many churches and monasteries, the construction of which was dictated rather by religious fervor and the spirit of independence in the face of the imperial church. Christian inscriptions and symbols are preserved on the walls of houses, rich and poor, and on numerous tombs. The fall of these cities is associated with the Persian campaigns. First of all, such rich commercial centers as Bread, Antioch, and Apamea were robbed. The Persians typically used scorched earth tactics in their wars against the Byzantine Empire. They deliberately destroyed vineyards, destroyed stone terraces, and cut down olive groves. During the period of the Arab conquests, this area was already abandoned. The once intensive trade in olive oil and wine has become impossible. The Mongol conquests, culminating with Tamerlane's campaign, completed the destruction. Due to the wars and their constant threat, the population moved to larger cities in Syria. Earthquakes contributed to the destruction of cities, but many did not disappear from the face of the earth, having survived all the vicissitudes of fate and time. One of these cities is El Bara. And cities such as Apamea, Mari, Palmyra, Maharet are not just preserved monuments of unique architecture that remain unattainable examples. The life of these cities reflected the culture, politics, and ideology of their time. They are associated with the rise of creative thought, achievements in the field of science, philosophy, and poetics. Apamea. Apamea - a city of ruins, disappearing under the onslaught of time, hides in the mountains. Small sections of the old Roman road that once connected the once beautiful city with Antioch have been preserved. This dead city is especially loved by modern Syrians. The first name of the city is Farnace. Seleucus, a brave and talented associate of the great commander Alexander the Great, married the beautiful Apamea, daughter of the Persian commander Spitam. After the death of Alexander, the huge empire fell apart, part of which passed into the hands of Seleucus. The second city after Antioch, the largest center of the Seleucid Empire, was named in honor of his beloved wife. Apamea became the largest strategic point of the empire. The famous historian Strabo mentions the stud farm of Apamea, which numbered 30 thousand mares and 300 stallions, as well as 500 elephants located here. In 64, during the Roman invasion, Pompey destroyed the city, but in the Byzantine era Apamea flourished again. At this time, the city was expanded and a slender colonnade arose on the main street, the remains of which still exist to this day. In 540, the city was captured and burned by the Persian king Khosrow I. This was followed by several strong earthquakes, the largest of which occurred in 1152. The population, exhausted by endless military skirmishes and severe earthquakes, left the city. When the wars died down, Apamea was almost completely destroyed, abandoned by everyone; overgrown roads and paths leading to the city. The modern road to Apamea is dusty, narrow, rocky. There is no paved highway leading here, as, for example, to Palmyra, there is no flow of tourists. You are greeted by silence - that special silence that accompanies ruins. At first it is difficult to navigate in the chaos of noble ruins, but gradually you begin to distinguish the remains of the walls that surrounded the city, the skeletons of round towers, between which stone gates still remain. The main street, lined with snow-white Corinthian columns from the Roman period, clearly stands out against the background of the ruins. In the center of the colonnade are two columns with projections, on which sculptures of famous citizens once stood. The sculptures are gone, but the names remain. This is Antony Pius and Lucius Verus. Thanks to their efforts, the colonnade was created. Adjacent to the main street are the ruins of a large building - a former temple erected in honor of the main god revered here - the god of luck. Behind the temple is a forum. The layout of the city is typically Hellenistic: the streets converge at right angles, forming peculiar cells. Some streets have canopies supported by columns. The slender columns at the base are somewhat thickened and covered with carvings with a repeating motif of eternal flowering. Marie. In the period from 1933 to 1934, excavations took place near the town of Abu Kemal. Abu Kemal and the slope of Tell Hariri, on which the town was located, began to resemble a beehive. And January 23, 1934 was an unforgettable day: as a result of excavations, the city of Mari appeared from under a dense layer of earth. Scholars have long been familiar with this name from numerous inscriptions found in Babylon and Assyria. One of the texts said that Mari was the tenth city founded after the Flood. Excavations continued for several years. The walls of the city appeared. But the most striking thing was the palace. “We discovered 69 rooms and palaces during the excavation process, and an even larger part remained underground,” wrote André Paré, a French archaeologist. And that was just the beginning. Later, 138 rooms were discovered, and the Temple of Dragon and the ziggurat, a typically Mesopotamian tower, appeared before the eyes of archaeologists. Finally, the palace of the kings of Mari was completely cleared in all its grandeur: a huge building with an area of ​​4 hectares, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC. e. Aerial photography of the huge palace gave a striking effect. It was an outstanding discovery. Numerous trucks were coming from Tell Hariri, kicking up dust. They were carrying a precious cargo: 24 thousand documents - cuneiform tablets from the archives of the palace (the library of the Assyrian ruler Ashurbanipal contained only 22 thousand clay tablets). The architectural ensemble of the palace was the pearl of the ancient East. Travelers from distant countries came to see this miracle. “I saw Marie,” writes an admiring merchant from the ancient Phoenician port of Ugarit. Mari was the capital of a state stretching to the Persian Gulf in the east, an intermediary between the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia and Anatolia. This important commercial center controlled the caravan trade routes that connected the countries of the ancient world. The people who inhabited the kingdom of Mari managed to maintain independence for a long time, constantly strengthening and expanding their territory. Money flowed into the treasury from taxes levied on caravans. A well-developed farming system ensured excellent harvests. All these factors contributed to the prosperity of the civilization that existed in the second millennium BC. e. The royal palace was surrounded by a protective wall. The only gate on the northern side provided the most reliable protection. Numerous passages led to a large courtyard. The official and administrative life of the state took place here; here the king received ambassadors and couriers. The audience chamber could accommodate hundreds of people. A wide corridor led to the royal apartments. To the throne room. None of the known ancient royal palaces was as large as the Mari Palace, or so talentedly decorated. Numerous paintings were very impressive. It seems as if the paints on the murals were applied only yesterday. A fragment of the king's ritual procession is painted on the wall. The face of each person participating in the procession is individual. The face of the priest is especially interesting - with a large nose and tightly compressed lips. As already mentioned, the palace of King Mari had a lot of rooms. Officials, nobles, and scribes had special rooms. There was a foreign department and a trade department. More than one hundred officials were involved in recording the revenues and goods imported and exported from the state. Records on this issue took up a thousand tablets. The royal archives of Marie are of particular value. Events of distant years are revealed when reading numerous letters and accounts, busily inscribed on clay by scribes. The tablets required the tireless work of scientists who deciphered archive materials over several years. A large number of documents were translated and published, each of which represents a small piece of a huge mosaic panel that told us about the state of Marie. The capital lived a busy life. News arrived here extremely quickly, because there was a kind of telegraph. Important messages were conveyed using signal fires. The state of Mari lay at the intersection of the great caravan routes from west to east and from north to south. Correspondence was carried out using clay tablets. They recorded various life events, talked about religious holidays, about priests with their magic formulas and fortune telling by the stars. However, the citizens of Mari were forced to defend themselves and their territory. For numerous nomadic tribes, the rich and prosperous Mari was a great temptation. In addition, famous conquerors encroached on the sovereignty of a powerful state. Sargon of Akkadian managed to conquer Mari and completed the destruction of the army of Hammurabi from Babylon around 1700 BC. e. During excavations, traces of terrible damage inflicted on the capital were discovered. But it was not possible to wipe the city off the face of the earth. Five-meter walls remained. “You can use the kitchens and bathrooms of the palace. There is not even a need to restore them,” Parro wrote. And this is 4 thousand years after the destruction! Clay water pipes and even charcoal in extinct stoves are perfectly preserved. The city is dead, the state has disappeared, but a rich culture cannot be destroyed. It was adopted by other nations. Its influence on the civilizations of the East is strong. Palmyra. On an autumn day in 271, Rome rejoiced. Emperor Aurelian returned home in triumph. The procession moved slowly through the city to the enthusiastic shouts of the crowd. Aurelian's closed and arrogant face, however, could not hide his joy. Behind the emperor's chariot was a crowd of exhausted prisoners. The people looked with curiosity at the woman shackled in gold chains. Her worn-out feet walked on the stones with difficulty. But neither long tangled hair nor rags could hide her amazing beauty. Contemporaries claimed that she was more beautiful than Cleopatra. The name of the Palmyra queen Zenobia, walking behind the chariot, was known throughout the East. And in intelligence and courage, this proud woman was superior to many men. They did not dare to execute her, because she aroused too deep respect. As the texts mention, Zenobia ended her days as a prisoner. Mentions of the city are found on an Assyrian tablet from the 2nd millennium BC. e. and on a tablet from Marie. The Akkadian text tells us that the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I marched on Tadmor (Palmyra) to fight the Arameans. The predecessors of the Arameans were the Canaanites, who introduced the cult of the god Bol, who became the main god of Palmyra. Later he assimilated with Bel, the main god of Babylon. During the early Roman period, the number of Arabs and Aramaes was equal in Palmyra. The tribes that settled in the city were Arab, spoke Arabic, and wrote in the army language. The Arabs felt like masters of these places. They came and built their homes in Palmyra, and this happened long before Islam. Further, until the 1st century BC. e., there is no information about Palmyra. True, the Old Testament mentions that Palmyra was ruled by Solomon, who reconstructed this city. The pre-Islamic poet al-Nabiha in the poem “Al-Daleyya” recalls the Arabic legend about how the genie built Palmyra for King Solomon: “God ordered Solomon: Get up and go to the people, help them free themselves from mistakes, let the genie know what I have given he has the right to build beautiful stone buildings and columns of Tadmor." The city was destroyed, but was soon rebuilt. The name is "Tadmor". By which it is known to the Arabs and other Semitic peoples, it is of unknown origin. Under the Latin name “Palmyra” the city was widely known in the Greco-Roman period. For some time, Palmyra was in the hands of the Seleucids and gained independence in 64 BC. e., while the rest of Syria became a Roman province. From that moment on, the city played the role of a buffer state between the Persians and Romans. Its favorable geographical and political position allowed it to be a link between Mediterranean culture and the culture of the Persian Gulf. By 1940, it had become a rich shopping center. Pearls, glassware, wines, Chinese silk, Indian ivory, Persian carpets, and statues from Phenicia were brought here. Countless caravans rushed to the amazing city. The wealth of the city attracted the greedy attention of Rome. In one of the texts dating back to 41 BC. e., it is said that Anthony. The proconsul of Rome in Egypt organized the robbery of the city: “When Anthony sent his horsemen to Palmyra and ordered it to be plundered, he had nothing to accuse the Palmyrans of, for they are honest and engaged in trade, buying goods in India, Arabia, Persia and selling them to the Romans.” . During this period, the city was not fortified and in case of danger, the residents, taking their goods, went to the left bank of the Euphrates. However, Palmyra truly submitted to Rome only in the first century AD. It became part of the Roman province of Syria, being autonomous and representing an oligarchic republic. In the 60s of the 2nd century, Palmyra again became virtually independent. In 267, the ruler of Palmyra, Odaenathus, was killed. The Palmyra crown passed to his youngest son, still an infant, who inherited all titles and titles from his father. Zenobia, who became regent under her son, seized power into her own hands. An educated, strong-willed, extremely proud and intelligent beauty, she was also extremely ambitious. After the death of Claudius II, the Roman Empire experienced a severe crisis. Rome had difficulty repelling the Gothic raids. Zenobia chose this particular period to invade Egypt. Having defeated the Roman troops in Egypt, she also carried out her plans to capture all of Western Asia. In the summer of 271, Zenobia and her son proclaimed themselves empress and emperor of the East. This was the time of Zenobia's greatest glory. Palmyra minted coins with images of her and her son. In the fall of 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian began military operations against Zenobia. They unfolded primarily in Egypt. Since Palmyra's dominance was not particularly popular, Aurelian won quickly. He returned all the cities. Conquered by Palmyra, he reached Syria without much difficulty. Aurelian crossed the Orontes and won two decisive battles. Zenobia's troops fled to Palmyra, finding refuge behind its mighty walls. The city was besieged. At night, Zenobia fled the city on a camel, trying to get to Persia and get the help of her former ally, but was captured. Palmyra surrendered. Zenobia followed Aurelian's chariot as a prisoner in the procession of triumph. In Homs, Zenobia's advisors were executed, among whom was Cassius Longinus, a philosopher and orator, head of the Neoplatonist school and Zenobia's close associate. As soon as the winner reached Europe, Palmyra rebelled and the Roman garrison led by the governor was killed. Aurelian was forced to return, which resulted in the sack of the city and the destruction of its walls. In the struggle against Rome, Palmyra lost its former glory. At the beginning of the 12th century, the influence of Palmyra intensified again. At the end of this century it was annexed to the Emirate of Homs. Arab castles grew up around one after another. But the city again lost its importance after the invasion of Timur and the fall of the large northern cities on the Euphrates, which were connected with it by trade relations. Earthquakes and Bedouin raids complete the work of its destruction and devastation. So a new acquaintance with Palmyra (already with its ruins) occurs only in the 17th-18th centuries. The earliest scientific expedition to Palmyra was carried out by two Englishmen, who published their sketches in the collection “The Ruins of Palmyra”. It was followed by Waddington's expedition. A German expedition visited here in 1902. English travelers, authors of “The Ruins of Palmyra,” reported that they found only 18 houses in Palmyra. They had to live in the courtyard of the Temple of Baal. But gradually a newly rebuilt city grew nearby. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Palmyra attracted great interest and a large influx of visitors. The ruins of the ancient city are scattered over a large area between the temple of Baal in the east and the foot of the hills in the west, connected by long colonnades to the Triumphal Gate. Most of the large buildings are located at the southern part of the colonnade. This is a theater, a senate, an agora with four portals. The fortress wall has almost been leveled to the ground, but it is still possible to determine the boundaries of the ancient city. From the top of the hill you can take in the entire ensemble of ruins and imagine ancient Palmyra with its luxurious buildings and green spaces. This is the Palmyra that has repeatedly appeared as a beautiful mirage in the lines of many lyrical poems. The Temple of Baal was located on an artificial hill that hid the remains of an earlier pagan temple. Its plan is typically eastern in nature: a quadrangular courtyard with covered galleries, in the center is the temple itself, in front of which there is an altar for sacrifices, a room for refreshments and a sacred pool. Each side is flanked by two rows of columns that were once decorated with gilded bronze capitals. In the southern and eastern sides of the temple there are two niches with images of Palmyra gods. This phenomenon is typically Syrian. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans placed the gods in niches, but placed them on a pedestal. The temple was closely connected with the life of the city and its ordinary residents. This is evidenced by partially preserved inscriptions on the walls: “Allah, have pity on Abd al-Samad, the son of Obeid, and on Muhammad, the son of Yazid, and forgive them their sins, past and present. Have mercy. Allah, any of those who, after reading the inscription, say: Amen! On the eastern wall there is an inscription - an edict from the ruler of Damascus, Az-Zahir, confirming the right of the inhabitants of Palmyra to graze cattle on the Terebinth Hills. The first houses of Palmyra were built around a spring near the temple of Baal. But most of the buildings that remain today were built during the heyday of the city. In addition to the main temple of the god Baal in Palmyra, there were temples dedicated to other gods. A temple was discovered dedicated to the god Nabo, the son of Marduk - the Babylonian god - lord of the heavens. The plan of the found temple is typically Syrian: a monumental entrance, a courtyard surrounded by a covered gallery, and a temple in the center. There is a small altar in the courtyard. Architectural fragments of the temple's interior indicate strong Mesopotamian influence. During the Roman period, the Syrians became acquainted with such a form of temple as the basilica. Such a structure was discovered in Palmyra near the Temple of Baal Shamin. The basilica is one of the earliest buildings used for Christian worship. It has a nave and side aisles, used as a court of justice and a place for trading. The Palmyra Basilica also includes a rectangular hall ending in a niche. Its portico is supported by six columns. The construction of the Basilica dates back to the 5th century. A spacious public square, the agora was once surrounded by columns. Its northern side was intended for major officials, the western side for military leaders, the southern side for caravan leaders and the eastern side for senators. Built in the 2nd century, it was destroyed at the same time. Zenobia used her stone to build a defensive wall. Two fountains in the corners of the northern portico, a semi-basement room and the remains of a platform from which speakers spoke have been preserved. The central gate was decorated with images of members of the family of Septimius Severus and other Syrian and Roman emperors. Palmyra is surrounded by a protective wall built of huge stones. Its length exceeds 12 kilometers. It acquired its original form during the reign of Odaenathus and Zenobia and was strengthened by square bastions. During the siege of the city by Aurelian in 272, the wall was destroyed. But in the 6th century it was restored by Emperor Justinian and in this form has been partially preserved to this day. There are four types of burials preserved in Palmyra. These are tower graves, house graves, underground graves, or hypogea, and individual burials. The oldest type of burial grounds are towers. They are a typically Palmyran invention. These are usually square buildings of several floors with stairs. At first, their design was very simple - with niches opened at ground level, but from the 1st century AD, the Palmyrans began to pay more attention to their interior. The base of the tower became stepped, the facade was decorated with balconies. Particular attention was paid to the first floor: there are Corinthian pilasters, colored friezes, and painted ceilings. When the first floor was filled, the second was built, and so on. The tower was a kind of family crypt. The influence of the Greek tradition is noticeable in the design of the tower burials. However, in sculpture Palmyra created her own style. The most interesting among the underground burials is the Tomb of the Three Brothers. The Palmyrene inscription on the door indicates that three brothers - Namain, Male and Saedi - dug this grave in the middle of the 2nd century. The walls and brick vaults of the grave are covered with plaster. Along the walls there are six rows of niches in which the dead were placed. Three beautiful white sarcophagi in the side compartment were reminiscent of the Hellenistic source of Palmyraan art. On the wall there are perfectly preserved frescoes of the Greco-Syrian style. The burial vault is decorated with blue hexagons and gilded rosettes. At the end of the 2nd century, another type of burial appeared in Palmyra. These are tomb houses. They were one-story, with a carefully decorated entrance. The door was certainly closed with a stone slab. Along the walls were niches with sculptures of the dead. There were a lot of such burial grounds in Palmyra, but only one was well preserved - the house of Maron. It was built by Julius Arlius Maron in March 236. Later it was used as a residential building, destroying the niches and disfiguring the interior. Individual burials are the cheapest. They consisted of a simple rectangular pit two by two meters. The walls were usually lined with limestone. The dead were placed in a clay coffin, with a stone placed on top, and this was considered quite sufficient. 14. Print. The Syrian pound lasts until old age Mikhail SNEGIREV iHOSTRANETS #21 06/28/95 Guests from Russia on the ancient Syrian land are now represented mainly by “shuttle traders”. Accordingly, Russians’ acquaintance with Syria so far suffers from one-sidedness: “ours” have more or less mastered only markets, warehouses and ready-made clothing factories there. Which is a bit of a shame. Over its long history, this country has seen the Romans, Crusaders, Ottomans, French colonialists and Soviet military specialists. Invasions from so many different cultures have left Syria with much to see. If you are not interested in looking at mossy ruins, it’s as if this country has resorts on the Mediterranean Sea especially for you. But no matter what you come to Syria for: for a touch of history, for the sun and sea, or for business, you cannot avoid meeting the Syrian pound. The fact is that although the import and export of foreign currency in Syria is not limited, payments in it on the territory of the country are strictly prohibited. In order for a foreigner to feel like a person with money there, he must first exchange his dollars (or other hard currency) for local pounds. Formally, the right to carry out such operations in the country belongs only to government-authorized banks. The vast majority of them belong to the state. Banks are open from 9.00 to 19.00, lunch break is from 14.00 to 15.00. They work all days of the week except Friday, which in Syria, in accordance with Muslim rules, is considered a day off. There are bank exchange offices in large upscale hotels, but unlike other countries they do not work around the clock: they close at 19.00-20.00. All private citizens in Syria formally face imprisonment for exchanging currency (a foreigner who catches the eye of a police officer doing this will be deported). However, since Syria is an eastern country, a lot of things happen there that are not exactly as the law dictates. Private currency exchange is so widespread that it can hardly be called a “black market.” Banks change money at a rate close to the official one. Last week it was slightly less than 42 Syrian pounds per $1. At any bazaar, having recognized you as a foreigner, a local gentleman will certainly approach you with an offer to exchange dollars for pounds at a rate of approximately 1:50. According to reviews from experienced Russian "shuttle traders", Syrian currency traders, unlike their colleagues in many other countries, work honestly: they do not cheat or cheat. They just try to make the actual exchange somewhere in a secluded place, away from the eyes of the police. You don't have to go to the market. If you are traveling around Syria as part of a tourist group, then the same service and at the same rate will almost certainly be provided to you by a representative of the local travel agency hosting you. Given this state of affairs, the vast majority of visitors from Russia do not go to banks in Syria at all. Syrian pounds are issued in denominations of 5, 10, 25, 100 and 500 pounds. The proud title of “legal tender” is also given to coins in denominations of 1 pound, half pound and even smaller ones, but due to too little purchasing power they are rarely found in circulation. The inscriptions on the banknotes, in addition to Arabic, are also in English. However, you will look in vain for the English word pound. Since the time when France ruled Syria under the mandate of the League of Nations (between the First and Second World Wars), the French name livre has been assigned to the Syrian currency. Externally, Syrian paper money is quite large in size, most often very worn and dirty. According to local custom, banknotes are not withdrawn from circulation until they literally fall apart from disrepair. This may be why local money changers (both official and from the “black market”) have no complaints about the appearance of foreign banknotes. No counterfeits of Syrian pounds have been recorded. In the sphere of trade and services in Syria, they flatly refuse to accept payment in dollars or any other currency other than pounds. In this country there is only one type of establishment, where, on the contrary, they accept exclusively hard currency - duty free shop. Unlike other countries, they are not only located at the international airport, but operate on the same principle: any goods purchased there must be taken out of the country and used only outside its borders. This is achieved this way. You cannot take goods purchased there with you. They are packaged, labeled with your name, delivered to the airport in time for your flight, and handed to you just before you leave Syria. It is allowed to export local banknotes from Syria in an amount of no more than 2,000 pounds. Syria lures tourists Foreigner #20 05/29/96 The Syrian government has set a goal of increasing the number of tourists coming to the country to four million by the year 2000. To attract such a number of vacationers to the country, the country's authorities are going to build two tourist villages on the Mediterranean coast. The first of them will be located near Latakia, the surroundings of which are simply crammed with all sorts of ancient monuments dating back more than one thousand years. The most fashionable Syrian resorts are also located here. The other is near Tartus, the site of ancient Phoenician settlements, the ruins of which have survived to this day. There are also many architectural monuments here, reminiscent of the Crusaders’ stay in these places. In addition, the number of hotels will be increased, especially five-star ones, of which there are only 11 in all of Syria so far. Living "dead" cities Irina MAK Foreigner #21 06-06-98 Tourists rarely get to the Halebiyah fortress, built on the Euphrates during the Roman Empire. Meanwhile, when the Romans adopted Christianity, the fortress became an object of pilgrimage and remains standing to this day. But this attraction is located in Syria, to put it mildly, which has not been very open to the world in recent decades, and there are almost no tourists there. Syria is a natural architectural reserve. “Dead” cities, early Christian churches, albeit converted into mosques, and castles of the Crusaders have reached us. If anyone gets here, they see the standard set: Damascus, Aleppo, Palmyra. That's all. The Muslim fort of Qasr al-Kheir al-Sharqi in the desert is a mystery for tourists, although it is only 30 kilometers from the nearest road. Further to the northwest lie the ruins of St. Simeon, where there is a pillar on top of which this Byzantine saint sat for decades. Around the pillar was the largest Christian basilica, older than European medieval cathedrals. The theater in basalt Bosra is one of the rare well-preserved ones. And the wall surrounding the huge temple of Bel was recently a shelter for houses. People were relocated to make room for tourists. Today you can explore it all alone. Last year, only 200,000 foreigners visited Syria. A quarter of them are Russians who came here on business. But this situation will not last long. The trend towards greater openness that has emerged in Syria in recent years will be long-term. Jordan, for example, where ten years ago you could explore the ruins of Petra alone, is introducing measures to control attendance. Syria remains that rare place where you can still feel the excitement of a pioneer. Bye. Gazprom became interested in the reconstruction of the Kirkuk (Iraq) – Banias (Syria) oil pipeline E. Suponina Time MN 03.12.98 The pipeline has not functioned since 1982, when the Syrians supported Iran in the war with Iraq. The Gulf War postponed the issue until sanctions were lifted. But this fall, Iraq and Syria began negotiations on resuming oil pumping through the pipeline in volumes of up to 300 thousand barrels per day. There are plans to build another pipe. In total, up to 1.4 million barrels of Iraqi oil can flow through Syria every day. The project caused a negative reaction from the United States, which indicated that it was impossible to export Iraqi oil via this route due to international sanctions. According to information available to Vremya, OJSC Gazprom is interested in the section from the Syrian-Iraqi border to the port of Banias on the Mediterranean Sea. Gazprom's participation in the modernization of the port terminal and refinery is being discussed. Syria's own oil production is about 580 thousand barrels per day. The Syrian Embassy in Russia confirmed the information available to the Vremya MN newspaper, refusing to comment on it. The issue will be dealt with, oddly enough, by the Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia S. Stepashin. A correspondent for the newspaper Vremya MN managed to find out that work in Syria could be carried out by a Gazprom subsidiary, Stroytransgaz CJSC, whose representatives recently visited the country. The company will take part in tenders for the construction of gas lines both inside Syria and to Lebanon. Success in Syria would come in handy given the stalled cooperation between Gazprom and Israel. The Gazprom Foreign Economic Relations Department told us that “negotiations with the Israelis are ongoing.” However, even during R. Vyakhirev’s visit to Israel in October of this year, the Israeli leadership, according to the local newspaper Globes, indicated the need to “wait for the development of affairs in Russia.” In Syria, Gazprom has a greater chance of success, if only because Russia there, unlike the United States, is historically “loved.” Here (as in Iran), Gazprom intends to test a concept developed several years ago. Its essence lies in the fact that the company intends to engage not only in gas supplies, but also to participate in investing and constructing facilities abroad. List of used literature 1. “Arab countries. Story. Economy". Edited by E.A. Lebedev. M: “Science”, 1970. 2. “Countries of the World: A Brief Political and Economic Directory.” Edited by I.S. Ivanov. M: “Republic”, 1997, 3. “Countries and peoples. General review. Southwest Asia." M: “Science”, 1979. 4. “Economic geography of the countries of the Near and Middle East.” Edited by P. Pobedina, V.P. Smirnov, V.V. Tsybulsky. M: “Enlightenment”, 1970. 5. Druzhinina N. A. “Syria old and new.” M: “enlightenment”, 1975. 6. “CD encyclopedia of Cyril Mifodiy”, 1998. 7. Electronic magazine “Foreigner”, and other INTERNET resources. 8. "CD atlas of the world", 1996. Contents. 1.Flag 1 2.Coat of arms 2 3.Pages of history 3 4.Map (city and industry) 4 5.EGP and GGP 5 6.Nature of the country 6 7.Population 8 8.Economy 10 8.1. Industry 11 8.2. Agriculture 15 9. Transport 18 10. Foreign economic relations 20 11. Cities 22 11.1. Damascus 22 11.2. Latakia 26 11.3. Aleppo 28 12. What's interesting? 30 12.1. Krak des Chevaliers - Castle of the Knights 30 12. 2. “The city that has never been conquered since the creation of the world” 31 12.3. Dead cities 33 13. Printing 40 14. References 44 -----------------------