The history of bricks and the development of its production. Sand-lime brick: past and present Red brick manufacturing methods

P. A. Rappoport. Construction production of Ancient Rus' (X-XIII centuries)

Brick is the most common material in the construction business of Ancient Rus'. It is therefore natural that brick technology has always attracted the attention of historians of ancient Russian architecture. However, the technological side of brick production has so far remained essentially completely unexplored. In the works devoted to this issue, more or less significant data were given only for the time starting from the 17th century, and only a few, moreover, often incorrect information was known about the brick production of the pre-Mongolian period. ( Konorov A.V. On the history of brick in Russia in the XI-XX centuries. // Tr. Institute of History of Natural Science and Technology. M., 1956. T. 7; Chernyak Ya.N. Essays on the history of brick production in Russia. M., 1957 .)

Meanwhile, recent archaeological studies of monuments of ancient Russian architecture and brick kilns allow (in comparison with written sources and ethnographic materials) to present in general terms a picture of the brick production of Ancient Rus'.

Brick molding. Since the construction of the first stone-brick building in Kyiv at the end of the 10th century. and up to the Mongol invasion in the middle of the XIII century. the bricks used in Rus' were in the form of thin and relatively wide tiles. In ancient Russian written sources, bricks were called the Greek word "plinth" (options - "plinth", "plinth"). ( From the 14th century in Rus' they began to use the term "brick". This word is of Turkic origin and, according to some researchers, penetrated from the language of the Volga Tatars (Yunaleeva RA., Galiullin K.R. On the history of the word "brick" in Russian // Uchen. zap. Azerb. ped. in-ta rus 1974. No. 1. P. 44 ). In the XIV century. the terms "plinth" and "brick" were used interchangeably ( Sreznevsky I.I. Materials for the dictionary of the Old Russian language. SPb., 1893. T. 1. Stb. 1209; 1902. Vol. 2. Stb. 965 ) This type of bricks entered Rus' from Byzantium.

The production of bricks, which at first glance seems to be a very simple matter, in reality requires special knowledge and extensive experience. First of all, not every clay is suitable for making good bricks. In addition, in clay, so that it does not crack during firing and has the necessary strength, there must be a certain amount of sand. Usually, pure clay is chosen for brick production, and sand is added artificially. The best clay is considered to be one that gives a linear shrinkage of 6-8% ( Gonchar P.D. The simplest ways to make bricks. M., 1958. S. 4 .).

An analysis of the bricks of ancient Russian monuments showed that during the entire 11th century. for bricks, kaolin clay was used, which sometimes had to be brought from afar. ( Holostenko N.V. Architectural and archaeological research of the Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery in Chernigov // Monuments of Culture. M., 1961. T. 3. S. 63 .). Bricks made from such clay are usually not red, but pink, fawn or light yellow. By the end of the 11th century, apparently, other types of clay also began to be used. In the XII century. for the manufacture of bricks, local clay was already widely used. At the same time, the variety of clays in the bricks of one monument is a rare phenomenon. Sometimes two types of bricks are found in the masonry, clearly made from two different types of clay. For example, in the Old Pulpit church near Vladimir-Volynsky, most of the bricks are red, but almost 30% are light yellow and white. The presence of bricks of two colors, red and light yellow, was also noted in the Church of the Annunciation in Chernigov. Nevertheless, more often than not, within each site, bricks are homogeneous in terms of clay composition; apparently, for construction, clay was usually taken from one quarry.

The brought clay was kneaded in the pits. After that, the molding of raw materials began. We can to a certain extent judge the molding system by the traces preserved on the Old Russian bricks themselves. Obviously, the clay was stuffed into a wooden mold-frame, and then the excess was cut off with a wooden knife (rule) to the level of the upper edge of the frame. Traces of such molding can be clearly seen on many bricks. The upper surface of the bricks is usually smooth and often has light scratches along the long axis - evidence of a sliding rule.

The bottom surface of the bricks is usually slightly rough; this is the impression of the backing board that was lying on the molding table. The absence of a bottom at the molding frame is confirmed by the location of convex signs, sometimes found on the lower surface of the bricks. Signs imprinted in one form are located on the bedside in different positions, and sometimes they are so shifted to the side that we see the imprint of only part of the sign, while the rest of it has gone beyond the surface of the brick. (Noted, for example, on the bricks of the Borisoglebsky Cathedral of the Smyadynsky Monastery in Smolensk). Such a position of signs could exist only in one case: if the form for imprinting the sign was cut not on the bottom of the frame, but on a lining board.

Thus, it turns out that the frames for molding bricks did not have a bottom and, apparently, coincided in type with the “brick frame” used in Russia in handicraft brick production until the 19th century. ( Krupsky A.K. Brick production // Encyclopedic Dictionary / Brockhaus and Efron. SPb., 1895. T. 15, [book] 29. S. 133 .)

Convex signs are found on the ends of the bricks. These signs, as a rule, are made distinctly, not smeared. If the shape for them was cut out in the side wall of the frame, the absence of blurring of the signs indicates that the frames were split. (In ethnography, detachable frames are noted, pulled together with a rope ( Belavenets M.I. clay science; Brick production; Chikmarny method of forming raw material for building bricks. SPb., 1903. S. 2 ) However, sometimes bricks have a slight curvature, and the smooth (upper) side is always concave. Obviously, such a distortion could occur when the raw material was knocked down from the frame, which is possible only with a one-piece frame.

A detailed measurement of bricks molded in one frame (which is evidenced by the coincidence of signs imprinted on the ends) showed their difference in size: 1 cm in brick thickness and up to 2 cm in length and width. Obviously, such an error was allowed by the primitive molding system itself, as well as the difference in drying and firing conditions.

It is known from ethnographic data that, during drying, the adobes were first laid flat, and then turned on edge, after which they were stacked (or “banquets”). ( Semenov M.I. Brick buildings and brick production in the Almazovskaya volost of the Balashovsky district // Saratov Zemstvo Week. 1903. No. 12. S. 73; Experience in making bricks by hand. Omsk, 1957. S.Z .) The drying process lasted 10-14 days, but under adverse weather conditions it stretched for a month. (In a document of the 17th century, it is noted: “But in bad weather, the brick does not dry ... and you can’t put cheese bricks in the oven” ( Speransky A.N. Essays on the history of the Order of Stone Affairs of the Moscow State. M., 1930. S. 86 ). It is very likely that Old Russian bricks were dried in much the same way, although, given their small thickness, they were hardly laid on edge. Slab Gothic bricks were stacked up to 10-12 rows. ( Tomaszewski Z. Badania cegl y jako metoda pomocnicza przy datowaniu obiektow architektonicznych // Zoszyty naukowe politechniki warszawskiej. Warszawa, 1955. N11 (Budownictwo), z. 4. S. 34; Wyrobisz A. Szedniowieczne cegielnie w wiekszych oszodkach miejskjch w Polsce // Studia z dziejow rzemioste i przemysfu. Wroclaw, 1961.T. 1.S.68 .) In handicraft production of the XX century. bricks in "banquets" were laid to a height of 6-8 rows. ( Gonchar P.D. Decree. op. S. 25 .) What were the stacks for drying in Ancient Rus', it is not known, but to some extent this can be judged by the prints on the bricks themselves. Obviously, in various construction centers, the drying of raw materials was carried out in different ways. So, on Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Grodno bricks there are footprints of children, domestic animals and birds, traces of rain ( rice. 1). Apparently, raw cheeses were dried here on the ground under the open sky. At the same time, there are no traces on the Smolensk and Polotsk bricks; judging by this, drying was carried out under a canopy (probably in special sheds). In Smolensk, on the lower plane and on the edges of bricks, several times it was possible to notice prints of fabric; it is possible that during drying it was laid under the mud, although ethnographic facts indicate that usually the drying area was simply sprinkled with sand. In Novgorod on bricks of the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII century. one of the beds always shows distinct prints of grass. Sometimes on ancient Russian bricks there are fingerprints of a human hand - obviously, traces of carrying and laying mud bricks.

The molding of bricks was not carried out all year round, but only during the construction season. This is quite clearly evidenced by ethnographic facts, according to which the season of brick molding lasted approximately from May 20 to September 1, i.e. included about 900-1000 business days. (This was the length of the season in the 19th century ( Rochefort N.I. Illustrated Oral position. Pg., 1916. S. 295; Krupsky A.K. Brick production. S. 134 ). Even in the post-revolutionary years, the brick-making season in Russia lasted no more than 3.5 months ( Yagodin V.G. Brick production. M.; D., 1930. S. 47 ). There is no reason to believe that in the XII century. the season was longer Crafts of the rural population of the Pskov district. Pskov, 1888, p. 58; Study of handicrafts in the Saratov province. Saratov, 1913. Issue 5. S. 22 ). It is most likely that the bricks needed to build a small temple were prepared in one season, but for large buildings it may have been necessary to make them two or even three seasons in a row. Judging by ethnographic data, an experienced craftsman made up to 1,500 pieces of raw materials per working day. (Study of handicrafts in the Saratov province. P. 23. According to other sources, one molder with two helpers made 2500 pieces a day ( Weber K.K. A practical guide to the production of bricks. SPb., 1893. S. 107 ). However, the data of the XVII century. testify to a much lower productivity: only 2000 bricks per moulder per month. ( Speransky A.N. Decree. op. S. 87 .).

It should be noted that in the process of drying and firing bricks are significantly reduced in size. Therefore, in order to obtain fired bricks of the required size, it was necessary to make the molding frame somewhat larger in size. Obviously, the craftsmen took into account some empirically found coefficient of clay shrinkage. (At the end of the 10th century, raw masonry was used in the construction of defensive ramparts. These unfired plinths are larger than the fired plinths used at the same time in Kiev construction. It is very possible that the difference in size in this case corresponds to the percentage of shrinkage during firing ( for the size of raw materials, see: Rappoport P.A. Essays on the history of Russian military architecture of the X-XIII centuries. M.; L., 1956. S. 78,80,84,88 ). When choosing the format, the masters, of course, determined the size of the raw brick, and not the burnt brick. In the XVIII century. the brick standard was even determined by the size of the raw material ( Karaulov E.V. Stone structures, their development and preservation. M., 1966. S. 8 ) At the same time, they had to be especially careful that the resulting brick was not larger than planned, since any increase in format entails a complication of the firing process, and therefore a deterioration in quality. In addition, the increase in brick format complicates the work of masons. ( Even in the 20th century, they did not forget about the advantages that the reduction in the brick format gave: “With smaller brick sizes, the drying and firing of the raw material is more even, which is why the quality of the brick increases significantly ... the work of carriers and masons is facilitated” (Lakhtin N. More about the size of a standard building bricks // Construction Industry, 1929, No. 2, p. 160; ). This, however, does not exclude the presence of an opposite trend related to the interests of customers, since an increase in the size of bricks provided a number of economic advantages. Therefore, the intervention of state bodies sometimes led to an increase in the standard sizes of bricks, as, for example, was the case with the introduction of the “large sovereign brick” at the end of the 16th century. ( Rappoport P.A. Russian tent architecture of the late 16th century. // MIA. 1949. No. 12. S. 294 ) It is natural, therefore, that in the manufacture of molding frames, the craftsmen introduced, as a rule, a minimum shrinkage coefficient, which was usually somewhat less than the coefficient of actual shrinkage. As a result, the brick format tended to gradually decrease. (The reduction in the size of bricks is also characteristic of Byzantine architecture ( see, for example, the dimensions of bricks given in the work of E. Reusche: Reusche E. Polychromes Sichtmauerwerk byzantinischer und for Byzanz beeinflusster Bauten Siidosteuropas. Kbln, 1971 ). In Georgia from the 4th to the 16th century. the length of the bricks was reduced by approximately 10-15 cm ( Dzhgamaya D.K. Building ceramics of feudal Georgia. Tbilisi, 1980. S. 94-98 )

Brick firing. Archaeological study of ancient Russian brick kilns began relatively recently. True, already in 1891 in the village. Shatrishche near Staraya Ryazan, two brick kilns were discovered (the vaults of the kiln and its walls are well preserved - ( See: Tr. Ryazan is a scientist, archir. kamis. behind. 1891 Ryazan, 1892. T. 6. S. 43 .). A.V., who examined them Selivanov reported that a description had been made and "the drawings had been taken." Unfortunately, neither the description nor the drawings have come down to us. The absence of genuine kilns made it necessary to judge firing mainly by the bricks themselves. The similarity of brick production with pottery allowed researchers to look for traces of brick kilns among the remains of ordinary pottery kilns. Meanwhile, the idea has long been expressed that the very mass production of brick production should have caused the use of other, more complex and much larger furnaces. Indeed, even the first genuine brick kiln, discovered by excavations in 1949 in Suzdal, turned out to be unlike ordinary ceramic furnaces (Fig. 2). ( Varganov A.D. Kilns XI-XII centuries. in Suzdal // KSIIMK. 1956. Issue. 65. P. 49. In 1946, M.K. Karger unearthed a large structure in Kyiv on the estate of St. Sophia Cathedral, which he interpreted as a brick kiln (see: Karger M.K. Ancient Kiev. M .; L., 1958. T. 1. S. 458 ). However, soon V.A. Bogusevich convincingly showed that this building could not be a brick kiln, but was the remains of a bath ( see: Bogusevich V.A. Spores of the XI century at the courtyard of the Metropolitan of Kiev // Archeology. 1961.T. 13. p. 105 ) Unfortunately, the furnace has not been studied enough, and therefore many of its details remain unclear. The Suzdal furnace is cut into the slope of the left bank of the river. Kamenki. It is rectangular in plan; the outer size is approximately 3.4 x 4.5 m. Six partitions are placed across the furnace, having an opening in the middle part, covered by an arch - the main combustion channel. The height of the partitions is 1.2 m; they are covered with a horizontal brick platform, which forms a rectangular hole above each section of the channels - an air vent. Only the lower, furnace, chamber has survived, and from the upper, firing chamber, fallen masonry blocks have been found. The walls and partitions are made of bricks on clay mortar. The thickness of the side and rear walls is 32 cm, the middle one is 60 cm. The firebox has not been preserved. The inner surface of the walls is slagged from the action of strong fire, and the outer ones are raw. Obviously, the kiln was made of raw materials that were fired during its operation. The size of the oven bricks is 4 x 20 x 32 cm, but there are also larger ones - 4 x 20 x 37 cm, and in the arches, on the contrary, smaller ones - 3 x 19 x 28 cm. The thickness of the horizontal joints of the clay mortar is 3-4 cm. The interior of the kiln turned out to be clogged with clay and a cultural layer. Fragments of unused bricks were found nearby - obviously, the products of this furnace. The thickness of the bricks is 3.5 - 4 cm, the size of the sides of several fragments is 32 and 37 cm. On the slope of the opposite bank of the river, traces of a second, probably similar furnace were found. The Suzdal stove, apparently, dates back to the time of the erection of the Monomakh Cathedral, i.e. to the turn of the XI-XII centuries.

Rice. 3. Brick kiln in Kyiv. Reconstruction by V.A. Kharlamov	Rice. 4. Brick kiln in Smolensk on the Channel. Axonometry
Rice. 5. Brick kiln in Smolensk on the Channel. View from the west	Rice. 6. Brick kiln in Smolensk on the Protoka

In 1974, two furnaces were excavated in Kyiv, almost next to the Church of the Tithes, to the northwest of it. ( Kilievich S.R. Detinets of Kyiv in the XI-first half of the XIII century. Kyiv, 1982. S. 74 .) The first has a rectangular shape: 4.8 x 4.0 m ( rice. 3). The outer, best-preserved walls are very thick - about 1 m. Only the combustion chamber has been partially preserved; it is double, divided along the furnace by an inner wall. The outer walls of the furnace are made of four rows of mud bricks on clay mortar, and the inner partition is made of two rows. The dimensions of the two chambers of the kiln are 2.7 x 0.9 and 3.0 x 0.9 m. The height of the walls of the combustion chamber reaches 1.3 m. The bottom of the furnace and the inner surface of the walls of the furnace chamber are slagged, and the entire body is calcined to red to a depth of 40 cm. 3.5 m to the north-west of the first furnace, the remains of the second one were discovered, apparently exactly the same, but more destroyed. The mud bricks from which the kilns are built have a size of 6.5-7 x 25-27 x 28 cm, and in the outer walls - 6.5-7 x 28 x 39-40 cm. Adhesive blocks of defective bricks were found nearby - apparently, the remains of production. The size of the bricks is 2.5 x 24 x 28 cm. Kilievich dates the excavated kilns to the end of the 10th century, i.e. erection time tithe church. The basis for such dating is the coincidence of the levels of the day surface of the furnace and the church, the determination made according to the archeomagnetic method, as well as the size of the bricks. Unfortunately, not all of these arguments are indisputable, since the size of the bricks practically does not coincide with that of the Church of the Tithes. Dating the excavated kilns to the end of the 10th century. is still not fully proven, although it is very probable.

In 1980, on the estate of the Sofia Reserve, to the northeast of the cathedral, during excavations, fragments of a brick-kiln were unearthed, apparently similar to the furnace near the Church of the Tithes. ( Totskaya I.F. On the issue of construction production in Ancient Rus' // Tez. chernig. region scientific method. conf., dedicated 20th anniversary of Chernigov. architect-ist. reserve. Chernigov, 1987. P. 28.) Not far from the stove in 1946, during the excavation of the bath building, a large pit (more likely a ravine) was discovered, filled with defective plinths. The literature also mentions another small stove, discovered near the St. Sophia Cathedral (New in the archeology of Kyiv. Kyiv, 1981, p. 348). However, this kiln, judging by the products found in it, was used for firing large vessels, not bricks. The bricks in the kiln were obviously used as supports for the vessels being fired.)

In 1951, a furnace of a different type was discovered in Chernigov. ( Bogusevich V. A. Archaeological excavations in Chernigov in 1949 and 1951 pp. // Archaeological reminders of the URSR. 1955. V. 5. S. 10 .) On a slope near the river bank, the lower part of a round furnace was excavated, which had an outer diameter of slightly more than 5 m. The walls of the furnace were made of bricks on clay mortar. The size of the bricks is on average 2.8 x 27 x 35 cm. The thickness of the walls is one brick, i.e. slightly over 30 cm; these walls have been preserved in places up to six rows of masonry. From the side of the slope to the river, the kiln had a mouth about 1 m wide. The remains of one transverse brick wall were found inside the kiln. Judging by the size and nature of the bricks that made up the oven and which were found inside it and nearby in the rubble, it belongs to the end of the 11th-beginning of the 12th century.

The most complete information about the design of ancient Russian brick kilns was obtained in Smolensk. Traces of furnaces were found here repeatedly. So, in 1931, the remains of one oven were discovered on the right bank of the Mavrinsky stream (formerly the Malaya Rachevka River). ( Archaeological find in Smolensk // Working Way (Smolensk). 1931. 29 Aug. No. 198; Message GAIMK. 1932, no. 5-6. S. 86. ) Unfortunately, no drawings of this furnace have been preserved, and it is impossible to understand its design from the description. How such a kiln worked and whether it was really a brick-kiln, and not some other, is unclear.

In 1962, during the excavations of the Cathedral on the Protoka, about 160 m southwest of its ruins, the remains of a furnace were discovered. In 1963, this furnace was excavated ( rice. 4-6). (Yushko A.L. Brick kiln of the end of the XII century. in Smolensk // Culture of Ancient Rus'. M., 1966. S. 307 .) It turned out that there was not one furnace, but three, successively replacing one another in the same place - the upper, middle and lower furnaces are cut into the northern slope of the hilly ridge.

The upper furnace is round in plan; its diameter is 4.2 m ( rice. 7). The outer wall of the furnace is made of mud bricks laid in one row with the long side along it. The masonry is made on clay mortar. The thickness of the seams is 3-4 cm. The greatest height of the preserved part of the wall is 0.5 m. Inside, the kiln is partitioned off by seven transverse walls-lintels, the distances between which are 15-20 cm. The thickness of the clay mortar joints in the lintels decreases upwards, and the two upper rows of bricks are laid dry. The main combustion channel, formed by arched openings in the middle of each bridge, passes through the entire furnace across the lintels. The width of the arches of this channel is about 70 cm. The bottom of the furnace was covered with a layer of ash (3-6 cm) and burned to a depth of 9 cm. The bottom rose slightly towards the side walls. In the northern part of the kiln, on the line of the main furnace channel, there was a mouth covered with an arch 0.45 m wide. In front of it, there is a narrow channel outside, bounded by mud walls, preserved to a height of up to 0.8 m. The bricks of the upper kiln are of two types; the vast majority of them have a size of 3-3.5 x 16-5-17 x 26-27 cm, and a small number - 3 x 145 x 25-25.5 cm.

Rice. 7. Upper brick kiln in Smolensk on the Protoka	Rice. 11. Brick kiln in Smolensk on the street. Pushkin. Cuts: 1 - doors; 2 - sand; 3 - burnt brick; 4 - clay; 5 - burnt clay; 6 - brick battle; 7 - raw brick; 8 - brick; 9 - furnace products (bricks); 10 - ash; 11 - under the furnace; 12 - clay mortar; 13 - burnt clay mortar; 14 - mainland.

The upper oven was built not on the mainland, but on the ruins of another oven of the same type. Between the furnaces there is a layer of clay 6 - 10 cm thick. The middle furnace is somewhat smaller in diameter than the upper one (3.15 m), and the direction of the channels and lintels of these furnaces does not completely coincide ( rice. 8). The outer wall of the middle kiln is made of adobes lying with the long side along the wall, and near the mouth - of adobes turned across the wall. The kiln had six lintels, built (unlike the upper kiln) not from fired bricks, but from raw bricks, although fired bricks are also found. The size of the bricks of the middle furnace is equal to the size of the bricks of the church on the Protoka. The signs on the bricks of the furnace and the cathedral also coincide. Thus, there is no doubt that the middle oven functioned during the construction of the Cathedral on the Channel. ( For the Cathedral on the Channel, see: Voronin N.N., Rappoport P.A. The architecture of Smolensk in the 12th-13th centuries. L., 1979. S. 300.)

Under the middle furnace, the remains of another, lower one, lying directly on the mainland ( rice. 9). It was very poorly preserved and was only partially opened. The oven was built exclusively from raw bricks, and in size they are the same as the bricks of an average oven. The coincidence of the dimensions of the bricks, the size and position of the mouth and the main furnace channel allows us to conclude that the middle furnace was built in the process of repairing the lower one. During this repair, obviously, the bottom of the furnace was somewhat raised and the bridges were shifted.

In 1972, in the western part of Smolensk, on the slopes of the Churilovsky ravine (Pushkin Street), the remains of a brick kiln were also found. In 1973, this furnace was excavated (Fig. 10-12). ( For the publication of this stove, see: Rappoport P.A. From the history of construction production in Ancient Rus' // Zograf (Beograd). 1982. No. 13. S. 49.) It had a round shape with an outer diameter of 4.2 -4.3 m. The outer wall of the furnace was built in a pit dug in the mountainside, after which the space between it and the mainland soil was filled with pure clay. The wall consists of two layers, folded each of the halves of the bricks. In the inner layer, the bricks are lightly fired, 3-4 cm thick and 18-19 cm wide. In the outer layer, closely adjacent to the inner one, the bricks are raw. In both layers, the clay mortar (i.e. clay with sand) serves as a binder. The furnace wall is not strictly vertical, but has a curvature: from below to a height of about 1 m, it slightly expands, above it begins to narrow in an arcuate manner. The wall thickness is about 30 cm: it has been preserved in some places up to a height of 1.6 m. The bottom of the furnace is clay, burned to a depth of about 6 cm. in marks it reaches 40 cm. Inside the furnace, in a direction perpendicular to the furnace, there are seven walls-bridges. They are built of burnt bricks measuring 3.5-3.8 x 17.5-18 x 25.5-26 cm. The thickness of the lintels is one brick length, the height is 1.0-1.1 m. The distances between the lintels range from 15 to 30 cm, but initially, when the lintels were not deformed, these distances, apparently, did not exceed 20 cm. In the middle of each lintel there is an arched the opening is 75-95 cm wide, 60-80 cm high. The openings are located approximately one against the other, forming the main combustion channel. At the bottom of the furnace lay a layer of ash (12-25 cm), and above it - a layer of fine brick chips (8-10 cm). On top of these layers, the remains of the kiln were packed with pure red clay, pieces of raw and fired bricks, with more clay in the middle part of the kiln, and almost exclusively bricks along the edges. The bricks of the arches of the furnace channel had surfaces fused to the state of clinker, and the clay mortar between the bricks was burned like a brick. It turned out that initially the side walls of the lintels were plastered with clay. By the time of the excavations, the lintels were found to be strongly inclined and noticeably damaged in the upper parts. One of the arches (in the fourth lintel) was made in antiquity, as evidenced by the presence of an additional lower arch supporting it. The furnace furnace was completely destroyed by the late pit.

During the excavations, it turned out that the above-described furnace was built on the remains of another, similar one. The size of the furnaces and their position coincide, but in the northern part (near the mouth) the upper furnace stood back half the thickness of the outer wall deep from the position of the lower one. The latter was only partially built, after which it was filled with clay and fragments of bricks, among which even whole specimens were found. The remains of the firebox of the lower furnace have been preserved: large stones, apparently lying at the base of the firebox, and between them there is a lot of ash and baked clay. On the sides of the destroyed firebox, large pits from poles were found, also probably related to the design of the firebox. The bricks of the lower furnace do not differ in format from the bricks of the upper one. During the excavations, several piles of bricks were found between the lintels of the upper furnace, which fell into it, apparently during its destruction ( rice. 13). These are the remains of unselected products. The size of the bricks is 3.2-3.8 x 17-5-18-5 x 24-245 cm. Narrow bricks with a semicircular end were also found in the rubble - for laying out small semi-columns. Almost all of these bricks are of weak firing.

The furnaces excavated in Smolensk in 1963 and 1973 are located in different parts of the city and, judging by the formats of their bricks, are not entirely simultaneous. The furnace on the Protoka was built at the end of the 12th century. and rebuilt at the very beginning of the 13th century, while the oven on the street. Pushkin was built a little later, apparently around 1230.

Rice. 14. Brick kiln in Chernihiv

In 1984, a complex of five furnaces was discovered in Chernigov on the banks of the river. Strizhen at the lake. Mlynovishche. ( Shchekun O.V. New plinth and palyuval complex of the kintsya of the XII century in Chernihiv // Persha Chernigivskaya Oblastna Naukova Conf. s ist. local lore, priests XXVII s’izdu CPRS: Proceedings. additional Chernigiv, 1985, p. 104; Shchekun A.V., Kuznetsov G.A. Works in Chernigov // JSC 1984. M., 1985. S. 329.) Furnaces are located in one line, at a distance of about 2 m from one another. The two best-preserved kilns ( rice. 14). They are cut into the ground by 0.7 m, rectangular (4.8 x 4.6 and 4.1 x 3.6 m), separated inside by a wall running along the furnace. The width of the mouth is 0.8 m. The thickness of the outer walls is up to 0.9 m. The ovens are made of plinth on clay. The size of the plinths is 26-30 x 17-24 x 3.5-4 cm. Raw bricks survived in the outer walls. Fragments of arched ceilings of furnace channels and vents were found in the collapse, connecting the preserved lower chambers with the unpreserved upper, burning ones. The authors of the excavations date the kilns to the second half of the 12th century.

The ancient Russian brick kilns that have been identified so far can be divided into two groups, two independent types. One type includes Kyiv ovens and Chernihiv ovens, on Mlynovishte; to the second - all the rest. Kyiv furnaces are built on flat terrain and therefore have very thick walls. Inside they are divided into two combustion chambers. The width of the chambers is such that they could not be covered with a flat brick hearth, but undoubtedly ended with a vaulted ceiling through which holes-air vents should have passed. Chernihiv kilns also had a division into two combustion chambers, a vaulted ceiling with vents. All other furnaces are fundamentally different. Thin walls pass everywhere across the furnace, through which the main furnace channel blocked by arches runs along it. It can be noted that this type of furnace is represented by two options. One of them is the Suzdal oven, which has a rectangular shape, and above the transverse walls - under the horizontally lying bricks. Another option is represented by the Smolensk ovens and, judging by the plan, apparently also the first Chernigov oven. In this version, the kilns are round, and the upper surfaces of the transverse walls served as the hearth of the burning chamber. The ovens are cut into the slope, and therefore their walls are rather thin.

Comparison of the Old Russian brick kilns with kilns of neighboring territories gives grounds to conclude that both types identified in Rus' had a wide territorial distribution. Thus, several kilns of the 11th-12th centuries, intended for firing tiles, were excavated in Kherson ( Yakobson A.L. Ceramics and ceramic production of medieval Taurica. L., 1979. S. 155; 2) Medieval Chersonese. M.; L., 1950. S. 155.). These ovens are pear-shaped or oval in plan. Their walls are made of raw materials, and the outside is lined with stones. Walls are placed across the furnace, through which the main combustion channel, blocked by arches, passes. On the territory of Crimea, a rather significant number of furnaces of a different type were found, designed for firing amphoras and dating back to the 8th-9th centuries. ( Yakobson A.L. Ceramics and ceramic production ... S. 39-56.) They are rectangular, have two longitudinal combustion channels and a bottom with round vents. A furnace is known, apparently from the 10th century. in Madara (Bulgaria). ( Rashenov A. Cave for clay products in Madara // Madara: Excavations and study. Sofia, 1936. Book. 2. p. 25.) It is cut into the ground, rectangular with transverse bridges, through which two parallel furnace channels covered by arches pass. Under the firing chamber here is made of horizontally arranged bricks.

Furnaces similar in design were also widespread in the territory that was part of the Golden Horde. Thus, a brick kiln, which functioned at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, was excavated in ancient Saraichik. ( Patsevich G.I. Brick kiln in the ancient city of Saraichik // KSIIMK. 1957. Issue. 69. p. 111.) Here the transverse walls were located so close to each other that their upper surface could serve as the hearth of the firing chamber. A rectangular kiln of the 14th century, 3.0 x 2.5 m in size, was uncovered in Bolgar. ( Khovanskaya O.S. Pottery of the city of Bolgar // MIA. 1954. No. 42. S. 366.) She, apparently, had a bottom of horizontally lying bricks, resting on the transverse walls. Two furnaces, representing a single production complex and dating back to the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, were discovered in medieval Belgorod. ( Kravchenko A.A. Industrial complexes of Belgorod XIII-XIV centuries. // Antique Tyra and medieval Belgorod. Kyiv, 1979. S. 115.) They are built into the remains of ancient residential buildings. Their walls are made of mud bricks on clay mortar, and the space between the walls and the stone walls of the ancient buildings is filled with earth for thermal insulation. The furnaces are rectangular, 2.7 x 2.6 and 3.1 x 2.7 m in size. The furnace channel, covered by arches, runs along the furnace. Under the firing chamber is lined with clay slabs and has round air ducts. In the end wall of the firing chamber, a loading passage opening (65 cm wide) has been preserved; through this passage, the furnace was loaded with products and removed after firing. According to researchers, the kilns were used for firing bricks, tiles, pipes and other building materials. A larger rectangular oven (4.5 x 3.0 m), with six transverse walls, was excavated in Old Orhei. ( Polevoy L.L. Urban pottery of the Prut-Dniester region in the 14th century. Kishinev, 1969. S. 87.) A furnace channel blocked by wide arches also passed through the transverse walls along the furnace. There is no information about how the upper chamber (burning chamber) was arranged. The kiln was used for firing bricks and dates back to the 14th century. In the same place, somewhat smaller kilns for firing dishes were found, which had a round shape (up to 1.6 m in diameter) and only two transverse walls. The remains of a kiln for firing building ceramics (including, apparently, bricks), dating back to the 9th-10th centuries, were excavated in the monastery complex near the Great Basilica in Pliska. ( Vitlyanov S. Zastopansky appearance on the manastir at Golyamata basilica in Pliska // Archeology (Sofia). 1984. No. 2-3. pp. 97-99.) The stove is square, with rounded corners, made of bricks and stones; the size of the sides is about 3.5 m. The foundations of the longitudinal and transverse walls have been preserved.

Kilns specially designed for firing bricks have been studied to a large extent in Central Asia. Kilns dating back to the 11th-12th and 13th-15th centuries are known here. ( Pruger E.B. Brick-burning production of medieval Merv // TYuTAKE. 1969. V. 14. S. 230-239.) These furnaces are rectangular, with five to seven transverse walls inside and one furnace channel passing through them, covered with arches. The size of the furnaces is usually about 3 m. The upper horizontal planes of the transverse walls served as the hearth of the burning chamber.

A review of brick kilns and large pottery kilns, approximately synchronous with Old Russian kilns and located on the territory of the Crimea, Bulgaria, the Golden Horde possessions and Central Asia, shows that these kilns are direct analogies to the kilns of Ancient Rus'. Thus, almost identical brick kilns were used in the 10th-15th centuries. in the extremely vast territory of South-Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Researchers have already noted that by origin this type is associated with late antique traditions. ( Yakobson A.L. Ceramics and ceramic production ... S. 57.) At the same time, it turns out that the location of the furnaces on a flat area or on a slope is not a fundamental difference, but is associated with local conditions. If it was possible to embed the furnace into a clay slope, this, of course, increased its thermal performance and reduced the cost of construction. But if there was no such slope nearby, the furnace was built on a plane, significantly increasing the thickness of the outer walls, or filling the space around the walls with stones and filling it with earth. The shape of the furnace is also not a fundamental difference - rectangular or round, since furnaces of both shapes are identical in design, and sometimes even intermediate - approaching a rectangle with rounded corners. A more significant difference is the presence or absence of a special round hearth. In those kilns, which were undoubtedly specially built for firing bricks, and not amphorae or other utensils, the upper surfaces of the walls or bricks lying horizontally on these walls served as the hearth. Kilns with round vents passing through a vaulted hearth were mostly intended for firing vessels, not kirichi. It is very possible that such a division was not unconditional and the bricks were fired in both types of kilns. But still, from this point of view, the furnaces excavated in Kyiv near the Church of the Tithes, as well as those in Chernihiv, on Mlynovishte, are similar in design to furnaces for firing large vessels.

Where possible, kilns were built close to the construction site. This is how furnaces were installed in ancient Smolensk. However, not all cities could organize the formation and firing of bricks at or near the construction site. Therefore, in Chernihiv, furnaces are located somewhat at a distance, outside the city. In Suzdal, the oven also stands outside the citadel, but at the exits of good clay. Exploration carried out in 1976 in Polotsk showed that here, judging by the finds of unused and unburned bricks, the area of ​​brick-burning production was located opposite the citadel, on the right bank of the Dvina - in the Yakimansky Posad area. In Ryazan, stoves are located near the village. Shatrishche - 2 km up the Oka from the ancient city. It is noteworthy that where the furnaces were located far from the construction site, they are located so that the brick can be transported by water.

Among the ancient Russian brick kilns studied by excavations, two Smolensk kilns are the best preserved. However, even they do not provide all the necessary information for the reconstruction of the firing process. Nevertheless, an analysis of the design of these kilns, combined with a few late medieval written sources, as well as ethnographic materials on artisanal brick firing in the 19th century allows you to understand the main features of the operation of such furnaces.

First of all, it is obvious that with a long combustion channel and relatively high bridges, long-flame fuel should have been used, i.e. ordinary firewood. By the way, wood fuel until the beginning of the 20th century. continued to be considered the best for these purposes. ( Weber K.K. Decree. op. S. 214; Yagodin V.G. Decree. op. S. 50; Gonchar P.D. Decree. op. S. 36.) Heat (i.e. hot gases) spread through the main combustion channel and through the transverse channels between the lintels, creating the temperature necessary for firing.

Since, unlike the Suzdal furnace in Smolensk, there is no special hearth above the lintels, it is obvious that the upper planes of the lintels themselves served as the hearth of the furnace. The spaces between the lintels had a width of no more than 20 cm; consequently, if mud bricks were laid on edge across these channels, then they should not have failed. Nevertheless, apparently, the lower row of fired bricks, in addition, was wedged so that they would better hold and not fall into the channels between the lintels. Such wedged bricks, standing in the channels with a poke upwards, were discovered during the clearing of both Smolensk furnaces. This bottom row of bricks created a grate on which the products to be fired were placed. (Such a grate was, for example, found in a kiln at the end of the 18th century, excavated in the Kostroma region ( Kuznetsova M.Yu. Excavations of a brick kiln in the village. Selishche // JSC 1975. M, 1976. S. 71.) Probably, for better firing, the rows of fired adobes were placed on edge, and the bricks of one row were placed perpendicular to the bricks of the neighboring one or “in the Christmas tree”. A stack of bricks found in a kiln channel in 1973, which obviously fell into this channel when the bridges were deformed, testifies to a certain order of laying. Here all the bricks stood pointing up: one brick across the canal, several bricks parallel to each other along it, then again one brick across. It is very possible that rows of adobes standing on edge alternated with rows lying flat. (So, for example, judging by the remains of the products found, they put the raw materials in the oven, serving the construction of the Church of the Tithes ( New in the archeology of Kyiv. S. 336). In the same way, raw materials were laid for firing in the 19th century. Poltava potters ( Zaretsky N.A. Pottery in the Poltava province. Poltava, 1894. S. 68)

Roasting was a rather complicated process, in which at first a not very high temperature was created in the furnace, and then it was raised to 800-950 °. After the firing was completed, they waited for the kiln to cool down, which took at least a week. ( In the Life of Euphrosnya of Polotsk, a miracle is described, thanks to which bricks were obtained to complete the construction of the temple: “... having found a cave full of burnt plynf, and already icy, strong green.” It is specially noted here that the bricks were already cooled down, i. immediately suitable for construction (Demetrius. Book of Lives of the Saints. Month of May. May 23. Kyiv, 1700) lasted about two or three weeks. Krupsky A.K. Brick production. S. 142; Semenov M.I. Decree. op. S. 73; Yagodin V.G. Decree. op. S. 60.)

During the operation of the furnace, hot gases must escape into the upper opening. This hole had to be large enough to allow loading and unloading of products through it. (In a rectangular kiln of the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, excavated in Belgorod, there was a special hole in the end wall for loading. This move had no traces of firing; obviously, after loading, the hole was covered with clay ( Kravchenko A.A. Decree. op. S. 121) It is very possible that the oven did not have a vaulted top at all, and its walls rose to a height corresponding to the height of the rows of loaded products, i.e. no more than 3 m above the level of the upper platform of the jumpers. Even in the 19th century in handicraft production, they preferred to build ovens with an open top, without a vault. ( Weber K.K. Decree. op. S. 229.) In this case, the bricks of two or three upper rows were laid flat close, so that they served as a kind of roof over the rest of the products. On top of these bricks, a thin layer of sand or slag was usually poured. To protect from rain, a wooden canopy was placed over the stove. ( Furnaces under a wooden canopy are clearly visible, for example, in the drawing by S. Remezov, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries. (see: Goldenberg L.A. Semen Ulyanovich Remezov. M., 1965. Fig. after p. 56). Similar stoves were also used in Western European medieval building practice ( Atszynski M. Technika i organizacja budownictwa ceglanego w Prusach w koncu XIV i w pierwszej polowie XV w. // Studio z dziejov rzemiosla i przemyslu. Wroclaw, 1970.T. 9.S.65)

Reconstruction, at least in the most general terms, of the functioning of the Smolensk brick kilns allows us to make an approximate calculation of their performance. As you know, when installing bricks on the edge, there are free spaces between them so that hot gases can cover the raw material from all sides, so about 400-500 pieces could be placed in one row in the furnace. By height in brick kilns of the 19th century. it was recommended to lay no more than 25 rows of raw materials, and for the most part - much less, only 16-18 rows. Thin bricks of the 12th century. (plinfa) were much easier to deform, and there is no doubt that these bricks could not be laid in many rows, like block bricks. If we accept that the kiln was loaded with a plinth to a height of 10 rows, then it turns out that up to 4-5 thousand bricks could be fired simultaneously in the Smolensk kiln. The season of brick-kiln operation could last a little longer than the season of raw molding - up to 150 working days. (Weber K.K. op. cit. p. 132.) Considering that the cycle of operation of the furnace was approximately 2.5 weeks, it can be assumed that each furnace was used 8-10 times per season and could thus produce up to 50 thousand tons of heat. bricks. The number of bricks needed to build a fairly large temple (for example, the Cathedral on the Protoka in Smolensk) is somewhat less than 1 million pieces. And since during firing a lot of marriage was obtained, the approximate number can be considered 1200 thousand pieces. (According to the norms of Russian handicraft production of the 19th century, during the dressing and firing of bricks, then 20% of the marriage was allowed ( Rochefort N.I. Decree. op. S. 295). According to the data of 1847, 80 thousand suitable bricks came out of 100 thousand pieces of raw bricks ( Konorov A.V. Decree. op. S. 209). Polish researchers believe that during the firing of bricks of Gothic buildings, the marriage was about 1/6 ( see, for example: Wyrobisz A. Op. cit. S. 79). When firing plinths, the percentage of rejects should have been even higher.) Therefore, in order to ensure the construction of a medium-sized temple, at least 10 furnaces of the type excavated in Smolensk had to work simultaneously for two seasons. The Suzdal furnace is slightly smaller in area than the Smolensk ones, and, therefore, its productivity should also be slightly less. (However, according to A.D. Varganov, in the Suzdal kiln, about 5 thousand pieces of raw materials could also be fired at the same time ( see: Varganov A.D. Decree. op. S. 50)

Signs on bricks. There are signs on many ancient Russian plinth bricks. Their classification was proposed by I.M. Khozerov. ( Khozerov I.M. Signs and hallmarks of bricks of Smolensk monuments of architecture of the ancient period // Nauch. Izv. Smolen, Mr. university 1929. Vol. 5, no. 3. S. 167.) According to his terminology, all convex images (both on the ends and on the flat side of bricks) are called signs, and images pressed in with a stamp are called hallmarks. In addition to this classification, L. A. Belyaev proposed to introduce the term “marks” to denote marks drawn with a finger or some tool on the bed side of a brick before it was fired. ( Belyaev L.A. From the history of the ancient Russian building craft // Problems of the history of the USSR. M., 1973. S. 439. V.D. Belenitsky proposed a different terminology: a sign is an image made with a finger or an instrument; stigma - stamp imprint; graffiti - an image made after firing (see: Belenitsky V.L. Brands and signs on bricks of the 12th century from the church of Dmitry Solunsky in Pskov // SA. 1971. No. 2. P. 272, note 2). This terminology is less convenient than that proposed by I.M. Khozerov, since almost all the images found on ancient Russian bricks (both convex and depressed) fall under one concept in this case - hallmarks.) All these signs are different not only in design and execution technique, but also in the breadth of distribution in various building centers of Rus'. Moreover, as it turned out, they are different in purpose.

The most widely used signs were on the ends of bricks ( rice. 15, 16). They were used in Chernigov, Ryazan, Smolensk, Polotsk, Grodno architecture. A large number of such signs, registered during the study of numerous monuments, both preserved and excavated, attracted the increased attention of researchers to them. Such signs were considered as signs of property, as personal brands of craftsmen, and finally, as signs of customers. However, a comparison of the signs with the process of making bricks led to the conclusion that in reality these signs are industrial. They marked the top brick of each stack of raw materials (“banquet”), in order to determine the day the stack was formed or the batch intended for simultaneous firing in the kiln. ( Rappoport P.A. Signs on the plinth // KSIA. 1977. Issue. 150. p. 28.)

The signs on the ends of bricks in the vast majority of cases are on the short end, although they are also found on the long end. The presence (very rarely) of such bricks is also noted, on which the signs are located on two ends: opposite short ones or on the long and short ones. All signs are convex, not having a depression in the dough of a brick, and certainly filled with an imprint of a wooden form - a matrix. If the matrix was cut out on the wall of the frame itself, then there is no doubt that the frame had to be detachable, since otherwise the sign would be smeared when the raw material was knocked out of it. A wall with a cut out sign could be replaceable, i.e. inserted into the frame only when forming a brick with a sign. However, the clarity of molding plinths with a large area of ​​their bedded surface and small thickness makes us think that the frame could not be detachable, but rigid, tied at the corners into a spike or into a lock. Under this condition, the possibility of placing the sign matrix on the wall of the frame is excluded. In this case, one has to assume that a separate bar with a matrix cut out on it was laid in the frame. When knocking out a raw piece, the plank fell out with it, ensuring the safety of the convex sign. After use, the plank was probably cleaned or even washed, so that the next time it was filled with clay, it would again give a clear imprint. The size of bricks with signs, as far as you can see, does not differ from the sizes of bricks without them. Therefore, if the sign was cut out on a separate plank, then the molds for bricks with signs were made specially longer by the thickness of the plank, which ensured their equal size and ordinary bricks.

There are bricks on which the same sign, unconditionally imprinted with one matrix, is found both in a direct and inverted position. This can be explained by turning over the bar with the matrix or the frame itself, which did not have a bottom. According to I.M. Khozerov, bricks were used in masonry, as a rule, in a position opposite to that in which they were molded, i.e. bottom side up. Proceeding from this, Khozerov proposed to depict the signs during publication as they were located in the masonry, and not as they were formed. However, it seems to be more expedient to present the images of all signs in the position they had when molded. At the same time, it is necessary to give an image not only of the sign itself, as Khozerov (and all researchers before him) did, but also of the entire end of the brick, since not only their design is important to determine the identity of the signs, but also the position that they occupy on the end. As for the exact drawing of signs, it can just vary somewhat even if the signs were imprinted from the same matrix, because after molding the matrix had to be cleaned from adhering clay and this was not always done equally carefully. As a result, signs were obtained that coincided in design and dimensions, but had different line thicknesses and different degrees of distinctness of the imprint.

The percentage of bricks with signs on the ends is unclear. In no case was it possible to make accurate statistical calculations of the ratio of the number of bricks with and without signs. It is possible that in different monuments it was different. An approximate count of the number of signs can be made on the surviving sections of the walls of the excavated buildings. So, in the Cathedral of the Trinity Monastery on Klovka in Smolensk, 9 signs per 200 bricks were recorded on the inner surface of the northern wall of the northern narthex. Taking into account that the signs did not play any role in the masonry and the bricks were equally often laid with signs both on the facade and inside the masonry, it can be assumed that there are still approximately the same number of signs here on the side of the bricks invisible from the outside. In addition, bricks facing the facade with a long side should be excluded from the calculation, because in Smolensk signs in the overwhelming majority of cases are found on the short side. As a result, it turns out that with such a calculation, signs should have been located on approximately 18 bricks out of 150 - 12%. In the masonry of the apse of the same temple, a similar calculation reveals a somewhat smaller number of bricks with signs - only 8%. A special dismantling of a small fallen masonry block at the southwestern corner of the cathedral on the Protoka in Smolensk yielded 17% of the bricks with signs (5 plinths out of 30).

The number of characters imprinted from one matrix is ​​also unknown. About 40 identical signs were registered. In reality, there were probably much more of them. It is noted that the same signs are more common in the same area of ​​the building. Apparently, this is due to the fact that one batch of bricks marked with the same signs was used in this section of the building. So, in the Smolensk Cathedral on the Protok there are signs that were mainly found in the masonry of the southern chapel, others - in the masonry of the northern, still others - in the southern part of the western wall of the gallery, etc. In the Church of Peter and Paul in the wall of the stairs leading to the choirs , one of the characters was recorded 17 times.

On the ends of the bricks, there are both very simple signs (for example, one dash), and quite complex in design. In the lower part of the buildings, a larger number of simple signs were usually used, and more complex signs were used above. Obviously, as the bricks were made, the signs gradually became more complicated in order to avoid their repetition.

Rice. 19. Sign on the bed side of the brick. Polotsk. Church on the Moat

Among the signs on the ends there are "princely" - probably personal signs of the prince-customer ( rice. 17). They are found in small numbers, apparently only one drawing in the monument. It is possible that such a sign was marked with a batch of raw materials associated with a certain day or event (the birthday of a prince or something similar). There are also signs in the form of letters, sometimes several together. In one case, in the Assumption Cathedral of Old Ryazan, a sign was found in the form of an inscription in a mirror image - “Yakov TV ...” (probably “created”). ( Mongait A.L. Old Ryazan. M., 1955. S. 88.) Apparently, this is the name of the master molder. The activity of the master in kneading clay and molding raw materials was obviously defined by the term “create”. ( See: Dal V. Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language. SPb., 1882. T. 4. S. 405 (create - “dissolve or dilute in a liquid, knead or knead”).

It should be noted that in almost all monuments one can see signs that are very similar in design, but differ in small details, size or location on the brick, which indicates that they were made by impressions from different matrices. Naturally, we should consider such signs as different variants. At the same time, their proximity gives grounds to believe that the craftsmen, when carving images on the wooden wall of the frame, meant one drawing. It is not always easy to determine when it was intended to make the same sign, and when different, although similar, is not always easy. Therefore, if the number of variants of signs (that is, signs imprinted from different matrices) found during excavations can be calculated quite accurately, then the number of different drawings is mostly determined approximately.

The total number of different signs used in the formation of bricks of one building was quite significant. Of course, in no case do we know their true number, since in the excavations it is possible to study only the lower parts of the brickwork, and in the surviving buildings such a calculation is all the more impossible. The largest number of variants of signs was noted in the Cathedral on the Protoka in Smolensk - there are 214 of them, if we take images imprinted from different matrices as different signs, even if the pattern matches. If, however, signs similar in design, imprinted from different matrices, are considered as one, then the total number of signs found in this temple will be about 130. Since only the lower parts of the walls and pillars have survived from the cathedral building, it can be assumed that in the whole structure at least 200 characters of different designs were used.

Cathedral on the Channel - one of the largest monuments of ancient Smolensk architecture; in most of the monuments, the volume of brickwork was smaller, and, consequently, the number of signs was also somewhat smaller. It can be assumed that the total number of different signs on the ends of bricks used in each individual monument of Russian architecture in the 12th century was approximately 100-200, and sometimes, perhaps, somewhat more.

In some cases, it is possible to note not only the similarity of the pattern of signs on the bricks of various monuments, but also their direct coincidence, i.e. print from one matrix. It is clear that we are talking about signs that are quite complex in design, since the coincidence of simple signs can be accidental. The presence in different monuments of signs imprinted from the same matrix could only take place if, after the completion of the construction of one building, when setting up the production of bricks for the next building, the remaining planks with signs carved on them were used. Naturally, such a preservation of the matrices suggests the work of the same molding master and, therefore, indicates the chronological closeness of these monuments.

Signs on the flat side of the bricks have a completely different character. As a rule, they are quite large, often complex in pattern, convex, imprinted in a wooden form, and in some cases even imprints of wood fibers of this form can be seen on the bricks. All signs are on the underside of the bricks, i.e. on the one that, during molding, is located on the backing board. It is obvious that the matrix was carved on this one; board. In masonry, on the contrary, such signs are almost always on the upper side of the bricks. All signs were found in random places of masonry and were covered with mortar, i.e. did not play any role in the construction of the building. Such signs are known only in a few monuments of ancient Russian architecture. Thus, their presence was noted on the bricks of the Church of the Tithes in Kiev, the Church of the Savior-tomb in Pereyaslavl, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky, the Church on the Moat in Polotsk, the Church of Dmitry Thessalonica in Pskov and the Church of the Annunciation in Vitebsk. In Smolensk, signs on the bed side of bricks were found in the Borisoglebsky Cathedral of the Smyadynsky Monastery, the Church of Peter and Paul, on bricks found during excavations near the eastern side of the modern cathedral, i.e. occurring, apparently, from that part of the Monomakh Cathedral, which was completed under Prince Rostislav. Thus, except for the Church of the Tithes (late 10th century) and the Church of the Savior in Pereyaslavl (late 11th - early 12th century), all other signs refer to monuments erected in the first half and middle of the 12th century.

In terms of content, these are mostly princely signs, different in all monuments, i.e., apparently, a personal sign of the prince-customer ( rice. 18, 19). (Rappoport P.A. Construction artels of Ancient Rus' and their customers // SA. 1985. No. 4. S. 87.) In addition to the princely ones, there are other signs on the bricks. On the bricks of the Church of the Tithes there are signs in the form of Greek inscriptions, which, unfortunately, are not readable due to their fragmentation. There is also an inscription on a brick from the Church of the Savior in Pereyaslavl.

Convex signs on the bed side of bricks are known not only in Russian, but also in Byzantine architecture, where they were used at least from the 4th century BC. ( Mango S.A. Bizantine brick stamps // Amer. Journ. archaeology. 1950 Vol. 54. P. 19.) Among them there are names, monograms, inscriptions. Most researchers of Byzantine architecture believe that these are mainly signs of customers or donors. Signs, obviously, also played some kind of counting role, since there are only about 1% of the bricks. Thus, the bricks of the Church of the Tithes testify to the continuation in Rus' of the Byzantine tradition of placing a convex sign with the name (or in this case, with the family sign) of the overlord on the bedside. It is obvious that a similar picture was observed in some cases and later, until the middle of the 12th century.

Rice. 20 Brick with stamp. Smolensk. Church on Bolshaya Krasnoflotskaya Street	Rice. 22. Hallmarks. Cathedral of the Spassky Monastery in Novgorod-Seversky
Rice. 21. Brick with hallmarks. Smolensk. Cathedral on the river	Rice. 23. Marks on bricks. Chernigov. Borisoglebskaya church. According to N.V. Holostenko

The third type of images found on ancient Russian bricks is hallmarks ( rice. 20). They are registered on the bricks of a number of monuments in the Smolensk and Polotsk lands. In Smolensk, stamps are found only in monuments dating back to the 40s to the 70s. XII century; as a rule, there are no hallmarks in later buildings. As a single exception, one brand was found on the brick of the church on Bolshaya Krasnoflotskaya Street and one - in the cathedral on the Protok. In the same cathedral on the Channel, several bricks were found, the bed side of which was entirely covered with a pattern made of stamps ( rice. 21). In Polotsk, stamps are known in the Great Cathedral of the Belchitsky Monastery, and one stamp is found on a brick of the tower. There are also hallmarks on the bricks of the Church of the Annunciation in Vitebsk. In addition to these monuments, stamps were found on the bricks of the Spassky Cathedral in Novgorod-Seversky ( rice. 22).

Many hallmarks of the same design were found in several copies - one print on a brick. But there are also such bricks, on which a number of identical marks are placed, usually arranged haphazardly. For example, in the Smolensk pillarless church in the citadel and the Borisoglebsky cathedral of the Smyadynsky monastery, one comes across both one imprint of some brands on a brick, and more of them - up to 10. On the brick of the same pillarless church, one brand is repeated 5 times and another stamp is imprinted twice.

Brands are always located on the upper bed side of the brick. They do not have a specific fixed position on the surface: absolutely identical marks on different bricks are usually located in different places - mainly in the middle part of the brick, but sometimes close to the edge. The depth of marks fluctuates in the same way, even if they are completely identical in pattern. Finally, some stamps are pressed into the brick with a slight slope, i.e. their bottom is not parallel to the plane of the brick bed. All these circumstances indicate that the hallmarks were applied to the raw material by imprinting with a stamp, which was pressed into the brick by hand. There is no doubt that the impression was made after the clay was cut off from the upper plane of the brick. The tool for stamping, obviously, was a stick (probably from a horn) with a specially processed end. The marks, as a rule, have a small diameter - from 1.3 to 3.5 cm. They are mostly round or oval, although there are also more complex shapes.

There are cases when hallmarks imprinted with one stamp were found on bricks of different monuments. So, for example, two stamps from a pillarless church are certainly identical to the stamps of the tower built simultaneously with this church.

THEM. Khozerov cites examples when, in Smolensk, on the sides of patterned bricks intended for laying arcades, patterns from hallmarks were placed. ( Khozerov I.M. Decree. op. pp. 178, 179.) Thus, the stamp for imprinting hallmarks could, apparently, sometimes be used to apply decorative motifs to bricks. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the main purpose of the stamps is still different, not decorative. The stamps located on the bed side of the bricks were visible only when the bricks had not yet been used in the masonry. Only a few assumptions can be made about the purpose of the hallmarks. It is most plausible that certain batches of bricks were marked with hallmarks. A relatively small number of hallmarks, much less than the number of marks on the ends, indicates that these lots were quite large. Perhaps this was how they marked the number of bricks needed for the entire load of the furnace or some part of it. Or maybe, a certain number of bricks was simply marked with a brand, and this was a mark of the number of made adobes, i.e. control of the quantity of prepared products.

Another type of signs is labels, i.e. signs, performance with some kind of instrument and even just a finger on the bed side of the brick. They were in use in Chernigov and partly in Kyiv (Assumption Cathedral of the Caves Monastery). According to the drawing, the marks are quite simple: these are stripes, crosses, sometimes letter-shaped images, and sometimes images resembling princely signs (Fig. 23). Marks are also found on bricks with signs on the end. Thus, marks and end marks could not replace each other; Obviously, their functions are not identical. The number of bricks with marks is usually much less than the number of bricks with marks on the end. In the Chernigov Cathedral of St. Boris and Gleb, where the marks are especially numerous, it is noted that patterned bricks of the same type mostly have the same type of marks. In the same monument, the observation was made that marks of the same type are often concentrated on one section of the building. It is very likely that the marks played the role of counting marks, i.e. performed the same function as the stamps.

Finally, there is another type of signs, known from the bricks of the two building centers of Rus' - Pereyaslavl and Vladimir-Volynsky: parallel stripes applied to the bed side of the brick with some kind of tool like a comb. These stripes, as a rule, have wavy outlines, much less often - rectilinear ( rice. 24). Often, “combing” strips cover the entire surface of the brick (solid corrugation); they are always directed along its long side. Usually, "combs" are very diverse both in the distance between the lines and in the "step" of the waves. Instances with such "combs" make up about 5% of the total number of bricks in the building. It is very possible that this type of signs is industrial and coincides with the signs on the ends, which were not used in Pereyaslavl and Volyn. In addition to Pereyaslavl and Volyn, “combs” were also found on the bricks of the Assumption Church in Podil in Kyiv. (Similar "combs" are also found on ancient Roman bricks ( Rupp E. Bautechnik im Altertum. Munchen, 1964. Taf. 103)

Sometimes on the bed side of the bricks there are drawings scratched with a stick on wet clay. The episodic appearance of such drawings indicates that they did not play any role in the process of making bricks or in construction. These are the fruits of the amateur creativity of the “plinth creators”, which are of interest not from the production and construction side, but only as examples of folk art ( rice. 25).

Assortment of bricks. The assortment of bricks of ancient Russian monuments, i.e. the set of types and shapes of bricks, as well as the percentage of types, have been studied extremely poorly. It is difficult to do this in the surviving monuments, because it is far from always possible to measure the bricks in the masonry. In the same cases, when they were unearthed by excavations, the set of types of bricks and their percentage ratio does not always correspond to what took place in the whole building before its destruction. Often, in the process of clearing the territory, the remains of the collapsed upper parts of the building were taken away somewhere. Therefore, in excavations, some types of bricks, which were used mainly in the upper parts of the structure, may sometimes not be found at all, not to mention the fact that the quantitative ratio of different types of bricks found can be completely random.

As far as can be judged from the available fragmentary data, the set of Tithe Church bricks consisted mainly of rectangular specimens. The most common size was 30 x 35 cm with a thickness of 2.5 cm, however, there were both narrower bricks (24 x 35 cm) and square ones (31 x 31 cm). Narrow half-bricks, 15-16 cm wide, were also used. In addition, bricks with semicircular and triangular ends, as well as slightly trapezoidal ones, were found in a small amount.

The assortment of bricks was studied in most detail during the dismantling of the ruins of the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery. ( Kholostenko M.V. Dormition Cathedral of the Caves Monastery // Ancient Kyiv. Kiev, 1975. S. 117.) About 2,800 intact specimens belonging to nine different types were collected here. Of course, there is no complete certainty that all these bricks belonged to the original building of the cathedral, and not to the areas of its repairs and rebuilding, but nevertheless, an analysis of the material obtained gives reason to judge the assortment of the cathedral's bricks. The size of the bricks fluctuated in a very wide range. Thus, wide rectangular specimens, which make up about 80% of all those found, have dimensions from 27 x 28 to 35 x 40 cm. However, about 70% of these rectangular bricks, i.e. more than 55% of all measured bricks of the cathedral have a size that fluctuates very slightly: 21 x 29 x 34-36 cm. Approximately 10% of all bricks belong to another variant of rectangular - narrow, from 15 to 19 cm wide. Slightly more than 2% of the bricks represent a completely special type, not found in other monuments of Russian architecture - narrow bricks with an expanded semicircular end. All other types make up a very small percentage - each type is no more than 1.5% of all bricks found.

A different assortment of bricks in the Chernigov Borisoglebsky Cathedral. ( Kholostenko M.B. Studies of the Borisoglebsky Cathedral in Chernigov // SA. 1967. No. 2. S. 192.) Here, along with rectangular bricks (of normal width and narrow), there are narrow ones with a semicircular end, trapezoidal ones with a slightly rounded side and segmented ones with a cut top, used for laying out semi-columns on facades. In addition, there are several types of patterned bricks in this monument - a complete set needed to make an arcade belt. The assortment of bricks of the Kyiv St. Cyril's Church is very close ( rice. 26).

Analysis of the assortment of bricks of Smolensk monuments of architecture of the XII century. showed that here in all sites ordinary rectangular bricks account for at least 70% of the total, in addition, up to 20% of bricks are represented by narrow rectangular specimens and only about 10% are patterned bricks of various types.

The assortment of bricks of the monuments of Smolensk changed very significantly along with the change in architectural forms in the 80s. 12th century Prior to this, the set necessarily included bricks, from which powerful half-columns were laid out on the facades; they had the shape of a segment with a cut top ( rice. 27). Since the 90s. 12th century such bricks were no longer used, but on the other hand, bricks with a semicircular end appeared in a fairly significant amount, which served for laying thin semi-columns on beam pilasters ( rice. 28). However, the correct semicircular shape in such bricks is found only in rare cases, usually bricks have a strongly flattened rounded end ( rice. 29). For the most part, these bricks correspond in width not to the main, but to the narrow type of rectangular bricks of this building, although in some buildings wide bricks with a flat-rounded end were also widely used. Along with bricks for semi-columns, bricks of the usual size were often used, but with one rounded corner, i.e. in the form of a quarter circle. Trapezoidal bricks, apparently used mainly for laying out door jambs and window openings, come across in a relatively small amount in the excavations. For the device of ornamental belts of the curb and denticles, ironing bricks were used - narrow, with a wedge-shaped end. Usually they were molded completely independently, as evidenced by a similar brick of the Cathedral on the Protoka in Smolensk, which had a convex sign in the form of a zigzag on the long side. But sometimes, judging by the finds in the ruins of the church at the Okopnoye cemetery in Smolensk, such bricks were made in the form of a raw plate with cutting it to break it into three or four ironing bricks. In very small quantities, there are also arcuately curved bricks, which apparently served for laying arcade belts to the brows.

The assortment of bricks in the monuments of Novgorod architecture is much less diverse. Here, in essence, only rectangular bricks were used. At the same time, a small part of the bricks had a significantly smaller width than ordinary bricks of the same monument, i.e. was "halves". In very small quantities, there are also narrow bricks with a triangular end, which were used for laying out denticles. An exception among the Novgorod monuments is the Pyatnitskaya church, the set of bricks of which is much more diverse and corresponds to the assortment of not Novgorod, but Smolensk churches.

Rice. 28. A set of bricks for the Church on Voskresenskaya Gora in Smolensk	Rice. 29. A set of bricks from the Cathedral of the Spassky Monastery in Novgorod-Seversky
	Rice. 30. Pilaster masonry. Smolensk. Church on Malaya Rachevka

In the architectural monuments of ancient Pereyaslavl, all the bricks were rectangular, and the vast majority had a normal width, and some were narrow bricks. The only exception is a civil building (probably a bathhouse), where various patterned bricks were found. The assortment of bricks from Kyiv and Chernihiv monuments of the late 12th - early 13th centuries is extremely diverse. ( rice. thirty).

A careful measurement of a significant number of bricks of each monument makes it possible to discard random deviations and establish what were the main dimensions of the bricks used in the laying. In this case, as a rule, it turns out that one standard covers the vast majority of all bricks (at least 60-70%) and is thus the leading, basic size for a given building. This basic size is usually determined with an accuracy of no more than 2 cm, since it should be borne in mind that an imperfect system of molding and firing gave just such fluctuations in size, not to mention more significant random deviations. ( In order to determine the basic brick format of the studied monument, it is necessary to measure a significant number of bricks. Then, based on these data, a graph is constructed that reveals the main format and its deviations (for more details, see: Rappoport P.A. Method for dating monuments of ancient Smolensk architecture according to the brick format // SA. 1976. No. 2. P. 83). Unfortunately, until very recently, most researchers did not build such graphs and did not use statistical data on the percentage of different brick sizes. Therefore, the formats of bricks given in publications often turn out to be inaccurate, and sometimes even simply incorrect.)

Comparison of the main sizes of bricks of various monuments shows that there is a certain regularity here: the younger the monument, the smaller its bricks. The reasons for the gradual and very uniform reduction in the size of the bricks are undoubtedly connected with a certain system of molding and firing. To date, these reasons have not yet been fully elucidated. (It is very likely that, when starting the construction of the building, the craftsmen took as a sample the format of fired plinths used by them at the previous object. Since the coefficient of shrinkage during drying and firing was taken, apparently, to be minimal, the raw materials were obtained slightly less than the raw materials of the previous construction, and consequently, fired plinths were also slightly smaller.) The systematic reduction in the size of ancient Russian bricks makes it possible to determine the time of construction of the structure by the format of the bricks. So, bricks of buildings of the XI century. have, as a rule, a length of 34 to 38 cm. a width of 27 to 31 cm. In the monuments of the XII century. bricks are smaller: length from 29 to 36 cm, width from 20 to 26 cm. Finally, in the monuments of the late XII-first third of the XIII century. the length of the bricks is from 24 to 29 cm, the width is from 17 to 21 cm. The thickness of the bricks in ancient Russian monuments ranges from 2.5 to 5 cm, and it is difficult to trace a certain regularity in the change in thickness.

Of course, the transition of brick molding into the hands of another building artel, perhaps even a change of master, could introduce noticeable fluctuations in the change in their sizes that did not correspond to chronological evolution. And yet, in most cases, on the basis of measuring the bricks of dated buildings, it is possible to create a scale of change in size, which makes it possible to determine with sufficient accuracy the time of erection of undated monuments. ( Rappoport P. A. 1) The method of dating the monuments of ancient Smolensk architecture according to the brick format. S. 83; 2) Archaeological research of monuments of Novgorod architecture // Novgorod historical collection. L., 1982. No. 1 (11). S. 197; Demicheva N.N. The study of the monuments of Novgorod architecture of the XII-beginning of the XIII century. according to the evolution of the brick format // SA.1984. No. 1. C.220.) These scales are different for different ancient Russian building centers. It should be noted that in some construction centers the evolution of brick sizes was more even, in others less so. But in general, in the monuments of architecture throughout the territory of Ancient Rus', the change in the size of bricks had a fairly uniform character.

In the scientific literature, it has been suggested that, along with the plinth in Rus', already in the XII-XIII centuries. bar bricks were also made, which were used together with plinth. In fact, bar brick, which is of Romanesque origin, first came to Kyiv from Poland in the very last pre-Mongolian years. Block bricks, together with plinths, were used only in those cases when they were repairing buildings built earlier. ( Rappoport P.A. On the time of the appearance of bar brick in Rus' // SA. 1989. No. 4. S. 210.) Examples are the Assumption Cathedral of the Caves Monastery, the Kiev rotunda, the Cathedral of Michael in Pereyaslavl, restored shortly after they suffered. And during the earthquake of 1230, in addition, narrow-format plinths were sometimes mistaken for block bricks, i.e. "halves", especially if they had an unusually large thickness (for example, in the Novgorod Cathedral of the Antoniev Monastery and the Old Ladoga Cathedral of the Nikolsky Monastery - more than 7 cm).

Of course, the study of the brick production of Ancient Rus' is still only taking its first steps. With further development of this issue, more significant data will undoubtedly be obtained both for the history of ancient Russian building technology and for ancient Russian architecture.

The maximum number of different drawings of signs on the bed side of bricks registered in one monument is four (in the Borisoglebsky Cathedral of the Smyadynsky Monastery). Almost all signs are met not in one, but in several copies. The total number of bricks with similar signs is very small, apparently no more than 1-2% of the total number of bricks of the monument. P. A. Rappoport. Construction production of Ancient Rus' (X-XIII centuries).

P. A. Rappoport. Construction production of Ancient Rus' (X-XIII centuries).

The red brick is the beginning of the story.

Red brick(the so-called building ceramic brick) is rightfully recognized as one of the oldest building materials. When people first wanted to buy a brick, and what was the price of a brick at that time, historians do not give an exact answer to such questions. However, even in the Bible there is a mention of such a building material as red brick, in relation to the time immediately after the settlement of people after the end of the Great Flood, that is, at the dawn of conscious human history. True, until recently, the most widespread in many countries was unbaked red brick, called raw, with the addition of straw. Meanwhile, the application in the construction of traditional fired red brick, the price of which is very affordable today, also dates back to the deepest antiquity (it was used during construction in Egypt, in the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC). That ancient one, in contrast to the red brick used now, was square and flat in shape (its sides were 30-60 centimeters with a thickness of only 3-9) and was called “plintha” (from Greek Plinthos - brick).

Used pseudo Red brick and in the architecture of ancient Rome and Mesopotamia, which is especially noticeable in the territory of the Ancients. Italy, where the Etruscans lived. They not only built temples of ancient red brick, but also additionally decorated with terracotta details. The red brick in the buildings of that ancient time has already begun to acquire a somewhat oblong shape that is quite familiar to us.

Byzantium for many centuries Red brick was the main building material. Of course, it was far from the red brick familiar to everyone today. Masonry was usually carried out on fresh lime mortar, to which crushed brick chips were necessarily added. Sometimes its rows alternated with masonry made of stone.

Medieval architects managed to advance much further than their "ancient" predecessors, since they used not only the structural possibilities that a single red brick provides, but also decorative ones. Along with the execution of patterned masonry, its combination with majolica and terracotta details was widely used. At the same time, Europe gratefully absorbed the thousand-year experience of various peoples. On the territory of present-day Germany, red brick gave an unusual name to the architectural style - "brick Gothic", which dominated there from the 12th to the 16th century.

Red brick history in Russia

Red brick figured in Russian architecture. The most striking example of the use of brick construction in Russia during the time of Tsar John III was the construction of walls and temples belonging to the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin, which even Italian masters envied.

The price of a brick has always been not too high, and the material was valued for its aesthetics and durability. Under Peter the Great, the quality of this building material was assessed extremely strictly. At that time, the delivery of bricks to the construction site was carried out by carts and the bricks simply fell off them: if more than 3 pieces were broken during the “unloading”, the entire brought batch was rejected.

Red brick generally considered "native" material for St. Petersburg buildings. After all, Peter I sought to build St. Petersburg a truly European city. His desire as a result led to the fact that literally all buildings that were not built of stone or red brick were stylized as the same brick houses. Until now, the best examples of houses of that time, located in the central part of St. Petersburg, not only look great, but also serve as the best proof of the durability and strength of red brick as a material. Modern developments have made it possible to significantly expand its range and bring it to perfection both in terms of aesthetic and technological properties.

Red brick manufacturing methods

Until the beginning of the 19th century, the technique of making red bricks remained very primitive and very laborious. One-and-a-half and single red bricks were formed by hand, it was dried only in summer, fired in temporary ovens standing on the floor, which were laid out from dried raw material. By the middle of the 19th century, a ring kiln was finally built along with a belt press, which led to a revolution in the technique of manufacturing this building material. At the same time, clay-working machines were invented - the so-called runners, pug mills, vyaltsy. In our time, over 80 percent of all red bricks are produced by year-round brick factories, including large mechanized enterprises, with a capacity of more than 200,000,000,000 pieces. in year.

Thus, the production and brick sale with each century, it expanded and developed in response to the huge demand for this building material. The main thing that has always driven its production, made it more attractive to professional builders and gave maximum profit, is the excellent quality of red brick and the favorable price at which bricks could be bought. Therefore, the main requirement for each brick factory was the presence of clay at its location, so as not to spend money on their transportation. Especially valued are shallow homogeneous clays, which are rich in sand, contain iron, lime, potassium, which is why they are relatively fusible and easily sinter during firing. Only clays with an admixture of marl stone are completely unsuitable for the production process. Today, knowledge of the history of the appearance of red brick, its technical production standards that existed earlier and are relevant now - this is something without which it is impossible to create high-quality red brick.

Standard fired brick has been used in Rus' since the end of the 15th century. A striking example was the construction of the walls and temples of the Moscow Kremlin during the time of John III, which was in charge of Italian masters. " ... and a brick oven was arranged behind the Andronikov Monastery, in Kalitnikovo, in what to burn a brick and how to do it, our Russian brick is already longer and harder, when it needs to be broken, then it is soaked with water. Lime was densely ordered to interfere with hanks, as it dries up in the morning, it is impossible to split it with a knife».

Dimensions

• 0.7 NF ("Euro") - 250x85x65 mm;
• 1.3 NF (modular single) - 288x138x65 mm.

Undersized (part):

• 3/4 - 180 mm;
• 1/2 - 120 mm;
• 1/4 - 60-65 mm.

Face names

Types of bricks and their advantages

To date, two main types of bricks are used in modern construction: ceramic and silicate bricks.

silicate brick

Silicate brick is made from a mixture of quartz sand, air lime and water. The molded brick is subjected to autoclave treatment - exposure to saturated water vapor at temperatures of 170-200 ° C and high pressure. As a result of the application of this technology, an artificial stone is formed. :

Advantages of silicate brick

• Environmental friendliness Silicate brick is made from environmentally friendly natural raw materials - lime and sand, according to a technology familiar to mankind for several centuries.
• Soundproofing. This plays an important role in the construction of inter-apartment or interior walls. Silicate brick is used for laying walls and pillars in civil and industrial construction.

Compared to ceramic, silicate brick has a higher density.

• High frost resistance and strength. Silicate brick in terms of strength and frost resistance significantly exceeds the brands of light concrete. On the facades built from it, the builders give a guarantee of 50 years.

• economy. The cost of silicate brick is lower than that of its ceramic counterparts.

• Reliability and wide range. Reliability and a wide range of sand-lime bricks make it possible to use it both in new construction and in reconstruction. Textured, colored silicate brick will decorate the facades of both public and residential buildings, as well as country cottages and summer cottages.

• Color type. Colored silicate brick is colored in mass in the same way as ceramic bricks. But, unlike ceramic bricks, silicate bricks can be dyed only with the help of special artificial dyes, and ceramic bricks acquire a certain color by mixing different types of clay or also by adding special dyes.

• unpretentiousness. Structures made of silicate brick are unpretentious and resistant to external factors. The whims of nature do not have a significant impact on its appearance, the facade retains its color and does not require additional care, except for cases of use in aggressive environments or in conditions of high humidity.

Disadvantages of silicate brick

• A serious disadvantage of silicate brick is its reduced water resistance and heat resistance, so it cannot be used in structures exposed to water (foundations, sewer wells, etc.) and high temperatures (furnaces, chimneys).

The use of silicate brick

Sand-lime brick is usually used for the construction of load-bearing and self-supporting walls and partitions, one-story and multi-story buildings and structures, internal partitions, filling voids in monolithic concrete structures, and the outer part of chimneys.

ceramic brick

Ceramic bricks are usually used for the construction of load-bearing and self-supporting walls and partitions, one-story and multi-story buildings and structures, internal partitions, filling voids in monolithic concrete structures, laying foundations, the inside of chimneys, industrial and domestic furnaces.

Ceramic brick is divided into ordinary (construction) and front. The latter is used in almost all areas of construction.

Advantages of ceramic ordinary brick

• Durable and wear resistant. Ceramic brick has high frost resistance, which is confirmed by many years of experience in its use in construction.
• Good sound insulation- walls made of ceramic bricks, as a rule, comply with the requirements of SNiP 23-03-2003 "Protection from noise".
• Low moisture absorption(less than 14%, and for clinker bricks this figure can reach 3%) - Moreover, ceramic bricks dry quickly.
• Environmental friendliness Ceramic bricks are made from environmentally friendly natural raw materials - clay, according to technology familiar to mankind for decades. During the operation of buildings built from it, red brick does not emit substances harmful to humans, such as radon gas.
• Resistant to almost all climatic conditions, which allows you to maintain reliability and appearance.
• High strength(15 MPa and above).
• high density(1950 kg/m³, up to 2000 kg/m³ with hand molding).

Advantages of ceramic facing bricks

• Frost resistance. The facing brick has high frost resistance, and this is especially important for the northern climate. The frost resistance of a brick is, along with strength, the most important indicator of its durability. Ceramic facing bricks are ideal for our climate.
• Strength and stability. Due to the high strength and low volume of porosity, the masonry erected from facing products is characterized by high strength and amazing resistance to environmental influences.
• Various textures and colors. The range of different shapes and colors of facing bricks gives you the opportunity to create an imitation of ancient buildings when building a modern house, and also allows you to compensate for the lost fragments of the facades of old mansions.

Disadvantages of ceramic bricks

• High price. Due to the fact that ceramic bricks require several stages of processing, its price is quite high compared to the price of silicate bricks.
• Possibility of efflorescence. Unlike silicate brick, ceramic brick "requires" a high-quality mortar, otherwise efflorescence may appear.
• The need to purchase all the required facing bricks from one batch. In the event that facing ceramic bricks are purchased from different batches, there may be problems with the tone.

Production technology

Until the 19th century, brick-making techniques remained primitive and labor-intensive. Bricks were molded by hand, dried only in summer, and fired in temporary outdoor ovens made of dried raw bricks. In the middle of the 19th century, a ring kiln and a belt press were built, which led to a revolution in production technology. At the end of the 19th century, dryers began to be built. At the same time, clay-working machines, runners, rollers, and pug mills appeared.

Nowadays, more than 80% of all bricks are produced by year-round enterprises, among which there are large mechanized factories with a capacity of over 200 million pieces. in year.

Organization of brick production

ceramic brick

It is necessary to create conditions to ensure the main production parameters:

• constant or average composition of clay;
• uniform work of production.

In brick production, results are achieved only after lengthy experiments with drying and firing modes. This work must be carried out under constant basic production parameters.

Clay

A good (front) ceramic brick is made from clay mined with a fine fraction with a constant composition of minerals. Deposits with a homogeneous composition of minerals and a multi-meter layer of clay suitable for extraction with a single-bucket excavator are very rare and almost all have been developed.

Most of the deposits contain multi-layered clay, so bucket and wheel excavators are considered to be the best mechanisms capable of producing clay of medium composition during mining. When working, they cut the clay along the height of the face, crush it, and when mixed, an average composition is obtained. Other types of excavators do not mix clay, but extract it in lumps.

A constant or average composition of clay is necessary for the selection of constant modes of drying and firing. Each composition needs its own mode of drying and firing. Once selected modes allow you to get high-quality bricks from the dryer and oven for years.

The qualitative and quantitative composition of the deposit is clarified as a result of exploration of the deposit. Only exploration finds out the mineral composition: what kind of silty loams, fusible clays, refractory clays, etc. are contained in the deposit.

The best clays for brick production are those that do not require additives. For the production of bricks, clay is usually used, which is unsuitable for other ceramic products.

Chamber dryers

The dryers are fully loaded with bricks, and the temperature and humidity gradually change in them throughout the entire volume of the dryer, in accordance with the given product drying curve.

Tunnel dryers

Dryers are loaded gradually and evenly. Cars with bricks move through the dryer and pass sequentially through zones with different temperatures and humidity. Tunnel dryers are best used for drying bricks from raw materials of medium composition. They are used in the production of similar products of building ceramics. They “keep” the drying mode very well with a constant and uniform load of raw bricks.

Drying process

Clay is a mixture of minerals, consisting by weight of more than 50% of particles up to 0.01 mm. Fine clays include particles less than 0.2 microns, medium 0.2-0.5 microns and coarse-grained 0.5-2 microns. In the volume of raw brick there are many capillaries of complex configuration and different sizes, formed by clay particles during molding.

Clays give a mass with water, which, after drying, retains its shape, and after firing it acquires the properties of a stone. Plasticity is due to the penetration of water, a good natural solvent, between the individual particles of clay minerals. The properties of clay with water are important in the formation and drying of bricks, and the chemical composition determines the properties of products during firing and after firing.

The sensitivity of clay to drying depends on the percentage of "clay" and "sandy" particles. The more "clay" particles in the clay, the more difficult it is to remove water from the raw brick without cracking during drying and the greater the strength of the brick after firing. The suitability of clay for making bricks is determined by laboratory tests.

If at the beginning of the dryer a lot of water vapor forms in the raw material, then their pressure may exceed the tensile strength of the raw material and a crack will appear. Therefore, the temperature in the first zone of the dryer must be such that the water vapor pressure does not destroy the raw material. In the third zone of the dryer, the green strength is sufficient to increase the temperature and increase the drying rate.

The mode characteristics of drying products in factories depend on the properties of the raw materials and the configuration of the products. The drying modes existing at the plants cannot be considered as unchanged and optimal. The practice of many factories shows that the duration of drying can be significantly reduced by using the methods of accelerating the external and internal diffusion of moisture in products.

In addition, it is impossible not to take into account the properties of clay raw materials of a particular deposit. This is precisely the task of factory technologists. It is necessary to choose such a productivity of the brick molding line and the operating modes of the brick dryer, which ensure the high quality of the raw material at the maximum achievable productivity of the brick plant.

Roasting process

Clay is a mixture of fusible and refractory minerals. During firing, low-melting minerals bind and partially dissolve refractory minerals. The structure and strength of the brick after firing is determined by the percentage of fusible and refractory minerals, the temperature and duration of firing.

In the process of firing ceramic bricks, low-melting minerals form glassy, ​​and refractory crystalline phases. As the temperature rises, more and more refractory minerals pass into the melt, and the content of the glass phase increases. With an increase in the glass phase content, frost resistance increases and the strength of ceramic bricks decreases.

With an increase in the duration of firing, the diffusion process between the vitreous and crystalline phases increases. In places of diffusion, large mechanical stresses arise, since the coefficient of thermal expansion of refractory minerals is greater than the coefficient of thermal expansion of low-melting minerals, which leads to a sharp decrease in strength.

After firing at a temperature of 950-1050 °C, the proportion of the vitreous phase in the ceramic brick should be no more than 8-10%. During the firing process, such firing temperature regimes and firing duration are selected so that all these complex physical and chemical processes ensure maximum strength of ceramic bricks.

silicate brick

Sand

The main component of sand-lime brick (85–90% by weight) is sand; therefore, sand-lime brick factories are usually located near sand deposits, and sand pits are part of the enterprises. The composition and properties of sand largely determine the nature and features of the silicate brick technology.

Sand is a loose accumulation of grains of various mineral composition with a size of 0.1 - 5 mm. By origin, sands are divided into natural and artificial. The latter, in turn, are divided into waste during crushing of rocks (tailings from ore dressing, crushed stone pits, etc.), crushed waste from fuel combustion (sand from fuel slag), crushed metallurgy waste (sands from blast furnace and water jacket slag).

The shape and nature of the surface of the sand grains are of great importance for the formability of the silicate mixture and the strength of the raw material, and also affect the rate of reaction with lime that begins during autoclaving on the surface of the sand grains.

When rough blending of sands in a quarry, it is checked in what proportion trolleys or dump trucks are loaded with sands of various sizes in each face. If there are several receiving hoppers for different sand fractions, it is necessary to check the given proportion of sands in the charge by the number of feeders of the same capacity, simultaneously unloading sands of various sizes.

Sand coming from the face before it is used in production must be screened out from foreign impurities - stones, lumps of clay, branches, metal objects, etc. These impurities in the production process cause brick rejects and even machine breakdowns, therefore drum grommets.

Lime

Lime is the second component of the raw mix necessary for the manufacture of silicate bricks.

The raw material for the production of lime is carbonate rocks containing at least 95% calcium carbonate CaCO3. These include dense limestone, limestone tuff, shell limestone, chalk, marble. All these materials are sedimentary rock, formed mainly as a result of the deposition on the bottom of marine basins of the waste products of animal organisms.

Limestone consists of calcareous spar - calcite - and a certain amount of various impurities: magnesium carbonate, iron salts, clay, etc. The color of limestone depends on these impurities. It is usually white or various shades of gray and yellow. If the clay content in limestones is more than 20%, then they are called marls. Limestones with a high content of magnesium carbonate are called dolomites.

Marl is a calcareous-argillaceous rock that contains from 30 to 65% clay matter. Consequently, the presence of calcium carbonate in it is only 35 - 70%. It is clear that marls are completely unsuitable for the manufacture of lime from them and therefore are not used for this purpose.

Dolomites, like limestones, are carbonate rocks consisting of the mineral dolomite (CaCO3*MgCO3). Since the content of calcium carbonate in them is less than 55%, they are also unsuitable for firing on lime. When firing limestone for lime, only pure limestone is used, which does not contain a large amount of harmful impurities in the form of clay, magnesium oxide, etc.

According to the size of the pieces, limestone for lime firing is divided into large, medium and small. The content of fines in limestone is determined by sifting the rock through screens.

The main binder for the production of silicate products is building air lime. The chemical composition of lime consists of calcium oxide (CaO) with an admixture of a certain amount of magnesium oxide (MgO).

There are two types of lime: quicklime and slaked; at factories of a silicate brick quicklime is applied. During firing, limestone under the influence of high temperature decomposes into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide and loses 44% of its original weight. After burning limestone, lump lime (boiler) is obtained, which has a grayish-white, sometimes yellowish color.

When lump lime interacts with water, hydration reactions CaO + H2O \u003d Ca (OH) 2 occur; MgO + H2O \u003d Mg (OH) 2 or, in other words, lime slaking. The hydration reactions of calcium and magnesium oxide proceed with the release of heat. Lump lime (boiler) in the process of hydration increases in volume and forms a loose, white, light powdery mass of calcium oxide Ca (OH) 2 hydrate. For complete slaking of lime, it is necessary to add at least 69% water to it, i.e. for every kilogram of quicklime, about 700 g of water. The result is perfect dry slaked lime (fluff). It is also called air lime. If lime is quenched with excess water, lime paste is obtained.

Lime should be stored only in covered warehouses that protect it from moisture. It is not recommended to store lime in the air for a long time, as it always contains a small amount of moisture, which quenches the lime. The content of carbon dioxide in the air leads to the carbonization of lime, i.e., the combination with carbon dioxide and thereby a partial decrease in its activity.

silicate mass

The lime-sand mixture is prepared in two ways: drum and silo.

The silage method of preparing the mass has significant economic advantages over the drum method, since when ensiling the mass, no steam is consumed for slaking lime. In addition, the technology of the silo method of production is much simpler than the technology of the drum method. Prepared lime and sand are continuously fed by feeders in a predetermined ratio to a single-shaft continuous mixer and moistened with water. The mixed and moistened mass enters the silos, where it is kept for 4 to 10 hours, during which the lime is slaked.

The silo is a cylindrical vessel made of sheet steel or reinforced concrete; the height of the silo is 8 - 10 m, the diameter is 3.5 - 4 m. In the lower part, the silo has a conical shape. The silo is unloaded by means of a plate feeder onto a belt conveyor. In this case, a large emission of dust occurs.

The modern construction industry is unimaginable without such an ordinary and uncomplicated at first glance invention of the earth's population - a brick. On the pages of the Internet portal on low-rise construction http://parthenon-house.ru you will find an unlimited number of materials and articles covering the issues of building houses and mansions from bricks or using modern clay products - porous blocks and pebbles. In this article, we want to tell you about the history of brick building, dating back to the times of the Old Civilizations, the Egyptian pharaohs and the kings of Rome.
Brick making in ancient Egypt

Countless archaeological excavations allow us to say with certainty that 1st bricks as a building material were used by man about 5 thousand years ago. But who specifically invented brick cannot be said for sure. Most likely, the brick in the awareness that we put into this word was not the invention of the 1st person, but the fruit of the evolutionary development of the very technology of building strong and cheap housing from improvised materials. Scientists were not able to accurately indicate and find the place where the first brick building was built, but the fact that these buildings began to be built in Mesopotamia, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates (Mesopotamia), is not at all an accident. The fact is that in these places there was always plenty of water, clay and grass. And all this grace was illuminated by the hot sun practically all year round. It was from these natural materials that the local inhabitants built their homes. The buildings were built of grass coated with clay.

Clay dried under the sun and became hard, while not letting water through and perfectly protected from bad weather. People saw this, but because they sought to facilitate their own work, they invented this, unpretentious at first glance, a bar of grass and clay, which we called brick. The development of the production of the first bricks was ordinary: sticky clay was combined with water, grass was added for strength and strength, and the bricks already formed in this way under the hot rays of the sun dried and became hard as a stone.

Raw brick manufacturing

It was still unfired brick or raw brick. raw brick and at the moment in our time is widely used in almost all countries of the world as the main building material.
The first who mastered the technology of firing bricks in a kiln were the ancient Egyptians.. The images that have survived from the time of the pharaohs clearly show how brick was made, and temples and houses were built from it. For example, the city walls of Jericho are built of brick, which had a shape similar to today's loaves of snow-white bread.

Brick walls of Jericho

Brick became the main building material in Mesopotamia and virtually all towns during the heyday of this civilization were built from it. For example, in Babylon, the most beautiful city in the old world, all the buildings were built of brick.
The ancient Romans and Greeks became great masters in the production of bricks and the construction of buildings and structures from it. Specifically, from the Greek word "plinthos", which practically means "brick", the plinths got their name, a product that was the latest milestone in the history of brick production.
It's curious: Another Greek word, keramos, translates as clay. And the term "ceramics" refers to products made from fired clay. Once upon a time in old Athens, master potters lived compactly in one of the districts of the town. This area became known to the Athenians as "Keramic".

plinths- more ancient fired bricks. It was made in special wood forms. The plinth was dried for 10-14 days, then fired in a kiln. They were square and large. In Old Rome, the plinth was usually made in the following dimensions 50 x 55 x 4.5 cm, and in Byzantium 30 x 35 x 2.5.
Plinths were made and much smaller, but they were used as tiles. As we see, the oldest plinths were significantly thinner than modern bricks, but this event did not in the least prevent the Romans from building their eminent Roman arches and vaults.

Outer arches of the Colosseum

Such bricks were simply molded, dried and fired. They were built from them with the introduction of a large layer of mortar, often equal in thickness to the plinth itself, due to which the wall of the temple became “striped”. From time to time, a row of natural stone was laid through several rows of plinths. In Byzantium plinth walls almost never plastered.

Brick in Russia

In the pre-Mongolian Kievan Rus, which adopted a lot from the culture of Byzantium, including technologies in the field of construction, plinth became the main material for the construction of structural parts of buildings and was used in ancient Russian temple architecture of the 10th - early 13th centuries, and it was from them that the St. cathedral (Kiev), 1037, Church of the Savior on Berestov, 1113-25, Church of the Annunciation (Vitebsk), Boris and Gleb Church (Grodno).
The first brick workshops in Rus' appeared at the monasteries. Their products were mostly used for the needs of the temple. It is believed that the first religious building in Rus', built of brick, was the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv.

Tithe Church in Kyiv

It's curious: In the scientific literature, conjectures were expressed that, together with the plinth in Rus', already in the XII-XIII centuries. made and block brick, which was used in conjunction with the plinth. In reality, squared brick, which is of Romanesque origin, first leaked into Kyiv from Poland in the very last pre-Mongolian years. Block bricks, together with plinths, were used only in those cases when they were repairing buildings built earlier. Examples are the Assumption Cathedral of the Caves Monastery, the Kiev rotunda, the Cathedral of Misha in Pereyaslavl, restored soon after they suffered during the earthquake of 1230. "halves", especially if they had a particularly huge thickness (for example, in the Novgorod Cathedral of the Antoniev Monastery and the Old Ladoga Cathedral of the Nikolsky Monastery - more than 7 cm).

In fact, in Capital Rus' molded brick began to be used everywhere only from the end of the 15th century, and the first brick factory was laid in 1475. And the walls of the Kremlin in Moscow were built from this brick.
It's curious: The history of the emergence of the first brick factory in the Capital Kingdom is quite fascinating. In 1475 he was invited to Moscow from Italy designer Aristotle Fioravanti for the construction of the Kremlin. But Aristotle began not with construction, but with the establishment of the production of bricks with a special kiln. And very rapidly this plant began to create very high quality brick. In honor of the designer, he was dubbed "Aristotelian brick". The walls of the Novgorod and Kazan Kremlins were also built from such a "clay stone". "Aristotelian brick" had an appearance similar to modern brick and subsequent dimensions of 289x189x67 mm. "Sovereign brick" - the first in Russia, which meant dressing the seams.

Despite the exceptional popularity of brick as a building material right up to the 19th century, the technique of brick production in Russia remained primitive and laborious. Bricks were molded by hand, dried only in the summer, and fired in temporary outdoor kilns made of dried raw bricks or small portable kilns. In the middle of the 19th century in technology brick production there was a real revolution. For the first time, an annular kiln and a belt press were built, and the first brick dryers appeared. At this time, clay-working machines, runners, vyaltsy, and pug mills appeared.
This allowed us to bring the creation of bricks to a completely new level. The next question was the properties of the product. In order to separate scammers from honest producers, a branding system was invented. In other words each brick factory had its own brand symbol - a brand that was applied to the brick. In the 19th century, the first technical description of a brick, a list of its characteristics and parameters, also appeared.

Old branded brick

It's curious: Under Peter 1, the quality of bricks was assessed very strictly. A batch of bricks brought to the construction site was simply dumped from the trolley: if more than 3 pieces were broken, then the entire batch was rejected. During the construction of St. Petersburg, Peter I introduced the so-called. "stone tax" - payment in bricks for entering the city.

modern brick acquired the dimensions familiar to us - 250x120x65 mm - in 1927, its weight is less than 4.3 kg.
5 thousand years have passed, and brick, as before, remains the most popular building material and is not going to give up its primacy to anyone. Evolution in the development of technology for the production of bricks and clay products is somewhat akin to human evolution according to Darwin's theory. If we draw an analogy, then at first the birth of simple forms (adobe huts), then primitive man (raw brick), now modern man (baked brick and clay pebbles). The evolutionary development of man and brick production technology go hand in hand, and this pattern indicates that as long as our civilization exists, brick will also exist as the basis of the entire construction industry made by the population of the earth over many centuries.

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The history of bricks began a very long time ago, from the very time when people began to burn dishes. It was then that the beginning of modern ceramic production was laid.

Ancient Egyptian brick building

Of particular pride is the brick construction of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, which created complex structural elements. Take, for example, the Tower of Babel, which is one of the seven wonders of the world. Its remains were discovered at the turn of the eras (19th and 20th centuries). It was a brick structure with seven tiers, the lining of its walls was made of blue glazed brick. It can be assumed that thousands of years ago in the East there were already technologies that made it possible to manufacture and fire bricks of various types, similar to modern ordinary and face bricks. But in antiquity, poor people built their dwellings from sun-dried bricks, not fired bricks. Probably, later this technique was somehow lost.

Bricks met different:

1. unburned, that is, dried by the sun;
2. fired in a kiln.

The first type of bricks is clay adobes. Special knowledge for the manufacture of such a building material was not required. It is still used in some countries around the world.

There are different versions of his appearance.

Clay cheese. Manufacturing.

The disadvantage of such a raw brick is the effect of rain on it. According to scientists, such bricks were obtained from the clay mass, which was lumped together after the river flooded the banks. As the water dries up, clay, mud and straw, lumped together, remain at the edge of the shore, and the sun dries them up. It happened that resin was also added to the mass. In such bricks there could be from 20 percent clay to seventy-five.

Modern brick factories extract clay from the depths, carefully mixing it with sand. But earlier people preferred deposits on the surface, they already contained both clay and sand in a certain ratio. Brick makers then tested the clay by tasting it. The decision to carry out construction in a particular area depended on the presence of brick clay.

When a suitable grade of clay was found, it was freed from pebbles so that they would not hinder the cutting of brick products, and would not burst during firing. When the clay was ready, it was mixed with water and molded.

Thanks to the firing, the bricks became strong, acquired the qualities of a stone. But they differed in that it was easier for them to give the desired shape.

Brick firing is a complex production process

After firing, the bricks acquire water resistance. Roasting is not an easy process. By placing a brick in a fire, it will not become strong. Until a specific degree of sintering is reached, there must be a constant temperature (900–1,150 degrees Celsius) for several hours (8–15). The temperature depends on the type of clay that is used. Slow cooling is required after firing to avoid cracks.

Brick firing

If the bricks are not burned enough, they become soft and crumble. If it is too strong, they lose their shape during firing and can fuse into a glassy substance. For proper firing, there must be a kiln in which the required temperature is constantly maintained.

The most common brick form was a square, which had sides of 30 and 60 centimeters, and a thickness of 3 to 9 centimeters. They were called plinths (the word came from Greek). In ancient Greece and Byzantium, they were in great demand. The plinth looked like a flat bar. In our perception, it looks more like a tile than a brick.

When brick appeared in Rus'

Ancient Rus' learned about brick thanks to Byzantine culture. Builders from Byzantium brought and revealed the secret of brick production. They arrived together with other masters, scientists and priests in 988 after the baptism of Rus'. The first brick building was the tithe church in Kyiv. The first brick buildings in Moscow appeared in 1450, and only 25 years later the first factory in Russia was built (1475), which produced bricks. Prior to that, bricks were made mainly at monasteries. In 1485, the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin began, where brick was used. The construction of the Kremlin walls and temples was led by Italian craftsmen. The next step was the construction of the brick Kremlin in Nizhny Novgorod (1500). A similar one was built in Tula in 1520.

Peter I, Petersburg and brick factories

In St. Petersburg, among the first brick houses were the chambers of the admiralty adviser Kikin, built in 1707. Three years later, on Trinity Square - the house of Chancellor G.P. Golovin (1710). The following year, the palace of Natalya Alekseevna, the princess, the sister of Peter I, was built. Further - the construction of the Winter and Summer Palaces of Peter I himself (1712). For a long time, for seven years, the construction of the Menshikov Palace was carried out. It has been rebuilt several times. But, in spite of everything, its original appearance was preserved. Today it is a museum, a branch of the State Hermitage.

The first Russian bricks. Peter 1

By his decree, Peter I allowed the construction of new brick factories, in which manufacturers had to stamp their bricks in order to make it easier to find scammers. After all, the strength of this building material was determined very simply. The entire batch of products was dumped from the cart. If at least three bricks were broken, then all products were considered to be of poor quality. Brick production developed, craftsmen were assembled all over Russia. At the same time, there was a ban on the construction of stone buildings in other cities. Violating this decree, there was a threat of being sent into exile and confiscation of property. Many masons came to St. Petersburg in search of work. Everyone entering or entering had to leave a brick, the so-called pass to the city. This is exactly what Peter I was counting on. There is an assumption that Kamenny Lane was built from brought and brought bricks.

How did the brick industry develop?

The technological production of bricks continued to be primitive and labor intensive until the 19th century. Bricks were shaped by hand, they were dried only in the summer, and they were fired in temporary outdoor kilns, which were laid out from dried raw bricks.

Another branded brick

In the middle of the 19th century, the brick industry began to actively develop. There are modern factories that produce bricks of our time. Today we can say with confidence that the production of bricks is wide and varied: more than fifteen thousand different combinations, shapes, sizes, surface textures and colors are produced. And also a brick can be hollow, ceramic, with heat-shielding properties, ordinary, shaped, front, fireplace, single, double, thickened and others. And accordingly, anything can be built from it: from a simple pillar to a high-rise building of an unusual shape ... It is convenient to work with it, it is considered a durable material, durable, beautiful and environmentally friendly.